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UCSD  Libr. 


THE  LMERNATIONAL  SCIENTIFIC  SERIES. 
VOLUME  XXVII. 


INTERNATIONAL   SCIENTIFIC   SERIES. 


NOiy  READY'.    Ik  121110  and  bound  in  cloth. 

I.  FORMS  OF  WATF.R,  In  Clouds,  Rain,  Klvcrs,  Ice,  nnd  Glaciers.     I!y 
Prof.  John  Tynuall.     fLJiO. 
II.  PUVslCS    AND   1H)LITU'S;    or.  Tlioiiclits   on   tbo   Am>lloallon  of  the 
Principles  o(  "  Natural  Selection  "  and  '•  Inheritance"  to  Political  toclcly. 
IJv  Walter  Hacjehot.     %\.M. 

III.  F<>«">l>S.     Uy  KnWARO  SjiiTii,  .M.  n.,  I.L.  n.,  K.  R.  S.     t\.'\ 

IV.  MINI)  AND  UUDY.     Hv  Ai.kxander  Hain,  I.L.  D.     >1..'>0. 

V    TIIK  .-^Tl'DY  OK  SOClOLOtiV.     Uv  IIkkiikkt  r^i-KSi  kr.    |1  .'>0. 
VI.  THK  NKW  CHKMlbTUY.     By  Prot  .Iosiah  P.  Cooke,  Jr.,  of  llnrvanl 

Tniversltv.     »-.'."0. 
VII    Tin:  CONJ^KRVATION  OF   ENERGY.      By  Prof.  Bai.fovb  Stkwabt. 

LL.  D.  F.  R.  S.     ♦l..Vt. 
VIII.  ANIMAL  LOCO.M(»TU)N;  or,  Walkinp.  Pwimmlnp.  nnd  Flyinp,  with  a 
Dissertation  on  Aeronautics.     By  J.  B.  Pettiuiikw,  M.  D.     Illustruted. 
tl.7.\ 
W.  RESPONSIBILITY  IN  MENTAL  DISEASE.    By  II.  Maidslev,  M.  D. 

X.  TIIK  SCIENCE  OF  LAW.     Bv  Prof.  Piiei.pos  Amos.     fl.!."). 
XI.  ANIMAL  MECIIANIS.M.     A  Treatise  on  Terrestrial  and  ACrial  locomo- 
tion.    BvE.  J.  Markv.     117  Illustrations.     fl.T.V 
XII.  TIIK  HISTORY  OF  THE  CONFLICT   BETWEEN  RELIGION  AND 
SCIENCE.     Bv  John  William  Dkapkr.  M.  D..  LL  D.     $1.7.V 

XIII.  THE    DOCTRI.NE    OF    DESCENT.    AND    DARWINISM.      By    Pmf. 

(MoAR  SniMiDT.  of  Strashurt;  luiversity.     $l..'>o. 

XIV.  THE  CHE.MISTRY  t)F  LIGHT  AND  I'HOTOCRAPHY  :  In  its  Appli- 

cation to  Art,  Science,  and  Industry.     By  Dr.  II.  Vogel.     100  Illuslra- 
tions.    $2.iX>.  ^  ^,    , 

XV.  FI'Niil;  their  Nature,  Influence,    nnd  Uses.    Bv  M.  C.  Cookk,  LL.  D. 
Editedhv  Rev.  M.  J.  Bkrkkley,  F.  L.  S.     lO'.t  Illustrations.     $1..M. 
XVI    THE    LIF'E     and    GROWTH     OF    LANGCAtiE.     By    Prof.  W.    D. 
WlllTSF.v.  of  Yale  O.llet'C.     »l..'Mt. 
XVII    MONEY  AND  THE  MECIIANIS.M  OF  EXCHANGE.    By  W.  Stanley 

Jf.vons.  M.  a..  F.  R.S.    HIJ.V 
.Will.  THK  NATL'RE  OF  LHIHT,  with  a  Ooneral  Account  of  Physical  Optics. 
Bv  Dr.  Ei-iiENK  LoMMEi,  Profes.tor  In  the  I'nlversity  of  Erlan>:en.     68 
Illustrations  nnd  a  Plato  of  Spectra  In  Chn)nio-litlio(.'nililiv.     $2.IHI. 
XIX.  ANIMAL    PAR.\SITES    AND    .MESSMATES.     By  M.  Van    Rknepes, 

Proles.'or  of  the  I'niversitv  of  Ixiivaln.     N<  lllustnitloiis.     ♦!. .'><•. 
XX.  O.N  FERMENTATIONS.    Bv  P.  SciifTzr.NHF.iKiKi:.  Director  at  the  Chem- 
ical Lahoratorv  at  the  Sorlwinne.     'l^  Iliuslnition.t.     ♦L.'nt. 
XXI.  THE  FIVE  SI'.NSES  OF  MAN.     Bv  Jii.hh  Bkrnstein,  O.  O.  Professor 

in  the  Cnivirsltv  of  Hall-.     '.•!   Illustrations.     ♦1.7.'>. 
XXILTHE   THEORY   OF   SOCND    IN    ITS   RELATION   TO   Ml'SIC.      By 
Prof.  PiETBo  Hlaserna,  of  the  Rovnl  rnivcrslty  of  Rome.     Numerous 
W.Hxlcuts.     ♦l..Vt. 
XXIII.  STIDIES    IN    SPECTRU.M    ANALYSIS.      By  J.  Nouman  Lotkyeb. 

Illustrations.     %i.:*\. 
X\IV    A    HISTORY  OK   THE  GROWTH  OF   THE  STE.VM  ENGINE.      Bv 
RoiirBT  H.  TiiiithT..N.  A  M  ,<•  E.  Prof,  .-f  Me.hanlcal  Enclncerinc  In 

the  Stevens  Ins.  of  T.rhnoloL'v.  Il'.t-.W N.J.    HVt  Illustrations.    ♦•/..'>". 

X,\V.  EDfCATION   AS  A  SCIENCfC.     I!v  Ai.i-.XANi>f:R  Rain,  LL.  D,  Prolofsor 
of  I/>i.'l'- In  the  Cnlversltv  of  AlMnleen.     »I.7.V 
XXVI    MODERN  CHRoMATIi  S,  with  Applications  to  Art  nnd   !nduptr>-.     By 
(KiliiiN  N.  Koou,  rrorestor  of  I'hysIca  In  Columbia  College.     !:«•  i.iljrlnal 
Hlustratlon*. 

D.  APPLETON  A  CO.,  PubUtheri,  519  A  551  Broadway,  Sew  Yoik. 


THE   INTERNATIONAL  SCIENTII'IC  SEIllES. 


THE 


iiuma:^  species. 


ft^ 
^ 


BY 

A.  DE  QUATREFAGES, 

PBortsiOB  or  asttibopologv  in  the  museum  of  natural  uistobt,  pABm. 


NEW   YORK: 
D .    A  r  P  L  E  T  O  N    AN  D    C'  O  ^f  P  A  N  Y , 
c\   '  T^  W'J   AND   551    BROADWAY. 

r-iT  1879. 


CriLT^e 


4-&7G 


CONTENTS. 


BOOK    I. 

UNITY   OF  THE   HUMAN   SPECIES. 


CHAPTKR   I. 

PAGE 

EMPIRES    AND    KINT.DOMS   OP   NATURE. — THE    HUMAN    KINGDOM. — 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL   METHOD 1 


CHAPTER   11. 

GENERAL  ANTHROPOLOGICAL  DOCTRINES  ;    MONOGENIS.M  AND  POLY- 


30 


CHAITEII    III. 

SPECIES    AND    RACK    IN    THE    NATURAL   SCIENCES      ....         35 

CHAPTER   IV. 

NATURE     OK     VARIATIONS     IN    ANIMAL     AND    VEGETABLE    RACES  ; 

APPLICATION    TO    MAN 41 


CHAPTER   V. 

EXT1:NT     of     VARIATIONS    IN     ANIMAL     AND     VEGETABLE     RACES; 

APPLICATION    TO    MAN 47 


vi  Contents. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

PAUE 

INTERCROSSING   AND   FCSION   OF   CHARACTERS    IN    ANIMAL    RACKS  ; 

APPLICATION   TO    MAN oG 


CHAPTEM    VII. 

CROSSING  OF  RACES  AND  SPECIKS  IN  THE  ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE 

KINGDOMS. — MONGRELS   AND   HYBRIDS 03 


CHAPTER    Vm. 

CROSSING   BETWEEN  VEGETABLE  AND  ANIMAL    RACES  AND  SPECIES  ; 

MONGRELS  AND    HYUIUUS  ;    REALITY    OF   SPECIES  .  .      .         70 


CHAPTER    IX. 

CROSSING     BETWEEN     IHMAN     GROUPS. — UNITY     OF     THE     HUMAN 

SPECIES 85 


ROOK    H. 

OIJIGIN   OF  TIIK   IIUM.VN   SPFXIES. 


CHAPTER    X. 

ORIGIN  OP  SPECIES.  —  HYruTllESES  Ol'  TKANSMl  TATION.— DARWINIS  1       89 

CHAPTER    XI. 

ORIGIN    OF   THE   HUMAN    SI'KCIE.S.— DIKIEHKNT    HYPOTHESES        .       .       104 


CoiiUiits.  vli 

BOOK    III. 

ANTIQUITY   OF   TIIK   HUMAN    SPKCIKS. 
CIIAPTEH    Xir. 

PAGE 

AQE   OP  TIU:    HUMAN   srKJlE.S.— r.:KSKNT   OEOLOfilCAL   EPOCH    .       .       1  "JO 

CHAPTER   XIII. 

AGE   OF   THE   HUMAN   SPECIE-S. — PAST   GEOLOGICAL   EPOCfld     .  .       142 


i;u()K   IV. 

ORIGINAL    LOCAI.ISATION   OF   TIIK    II  I'M  AX    SrECIKS. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

AGASSIZ'S   THEOny.— CENTRES   OF   CREATION 154 

CHAPTEP.   XV. 

PROGRESSIVE   LOCALISATION   OF  ORGANISED   BEINGS. — CENTRES  OF 

APPEARANCE.— ORIGINAL   LOCALISATION   OF   MAN    .  .  .       1G8 


r.ooK  V. 

rr.ori.ixo  of  the  glore. 

—  ♦  — 

CHAPTER    XVI. 

MIGRATION.S    RY    LAND.  -  EXODUS    OF     THE     KALMUCKS    FROM    THE 

VOLGA 170 


viii  Co)itc}its. 

CHAPTllli   XVI r. 

PAQE 

MI01UTI0N8   BY   SEA. — POLYXESIAN    MICKATION.S. — MIGKATIONS   TO 

XKW   ZEALAND 185 

CHAPTER   XVIII. 

MIGRATIONS   BY   SUA. — MIGRATIONS   IN   AMERICA  .  ...       109 


BOOK    VI. 

ACCMMATISATIOX    OF   TlIK  HUMAN   SnX'IES. 

—  ♦  — 

CIIArTEIl    XIX. 

INFLUENCE   OF   CONniTIONS   OF    LIFE   AND   RACK     ....      214 

CHArTEll  XX. 

COND1TION.S   OF   ACCLIMATLSATION 224 


BOOK    VII. 

1I;1.M1TIVK    .MAN.— FOKMATION    OF   TllF.    IIl'.MAN    RACES. 

CHAITEll   XXI. 
ruiMiTivi;  MAN 239 

CHAITER   XXII. 

FOllMATION    CF    Ml  MAN    RACES    UNDER    THE   SOLE     INII.lKNi  K    OK 

CONDITIONS   OF    LIFE   AND   HEREDITY 241 

ciiAi'Ti:!:  xxiii. 

FUHMATUN    (<F    MIXED    lllMAN    RACES 2G0 

CIIAITEU    XXIV. 

INFLLENCK   OF   CROSSINU    L  I'ON    MI.XED   HUMAN    RAl  Es        .  .      .      27G 


C out  oils.  ix 

ROOK    VIII. 

FOSSIL  HUMAN   RACES. 


CIIAPTKR    XXV. 

vsnr. 
GENKHAL   OUSEKVATIONS 287 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

THE   CAXSTADT   RACE 302 

CHAPTER   XXVII. 

THE   CnO-MAGNON    RACE ,  .311 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

RACES   OF   FCRFOOZ 337 


BOOK    IX. 

PRESENT  HUMAN   RACES.— PHYSICAL  CHARACTERS. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

GKNKRAL   onsKllVATIONS.— EXTERNAL   CHARACTERS  .  .  .      349 

CHAPTER   XXX. 

ANATOMICAL   tllAH.VCTER.S  ........      370 

CHAPTER   XXXr. 

rHY.SIOLOOICAL   CHARACTER.S JOD 

CHAPTEP.    XXXII. 

PATHOLOGICAL   CHARACTERS 422 


Contents. 
BOOK    X. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  CHARACTERS   OF   THE   HUMAN   SPECIES. 


CHAPTER   XXXIII. 

r.\c.B 
IKTELLECTCAL   CEAIIACTERS 431 


CKAPTER  XXXIV. 

MORAL   CIIAU\CTER3 459 

CUAl'TEU   XXXV. 

RELIGIOUS   CHARACTERS 473 


THE   HUMAN   SPECIES. 


BOOK  I. 

UNITY    OF    THE    HUMAN    SPECIES. 


CHAPTER    I. 


EMPIRKS  AND  KINGDOMS  OF  NATURE. — THE  HUMAN 
KINGDOM. — ANTHROPOLOGICAL  METHOD. 

I.  The  naturalist  -vvlio  meets  -with  an  object  for  the  first 
time,  instinctively  asks  the  question  : — What  is  this  object  ? 
This  question  leads  to  another : — With  what  other  objects 
shall  I  class  it  ?  To  what  group,  and,  in  the  first  place,  to 
what  kingdom  does  it  belong  ?  Is  it  a  mineral,  a  plant,  or 
an  animal  ? 

The  answer  is  not  always  easy.  We  know  that,  in  what 
may  be  called  the  basis  of  each  Jcingdom,  there  are  ambigu- 
ous forms,  whose  nature  has  long  been,  and  still  is,  the  sub- 
ject of  contention  among  naturalists.  We  know  that  polyps 
were  long  regarded  as  plants,  and  that  nullipores,  at  first 
taken  for  polyps,  are  now  divided  between  the  vegetable  and 
mineral  kingdoms  ;  and,  finally,  we  know  that  even  now, 
botanists  and  zoologists  dispute  over  certain  diatoms  and 
transfer  them  from  one  kingdom  to  the  other. 

Similarly  the  (juestion  has  been  a.sked  : — What  is  man  ? 
and  it  has  been  answered  from  several  points  of  view.  To 
the  naturalist  it  has  but  one  meaning',  and  sijrnifics  in  which 
kingdom  must  man  be  placed  ?  or  Ijctter  :  is  man  an  animal? 


2  The  Human  Sj)ccics. 

In  spite  of  all  the  differences  Avhich  a  comparison  of  man 
with  the  mammalia  presents,  should  he  be  classed  with 
tliem  ?  This  question  is  similar  to  that  which  Peysonnel 
is  said  to  have  asked  himself,  when,  struck  by  the  special 
phenomena  presented  by  the  coral,  he  asked  himself  whether 
the  object  before  him  was  a  vegetable. 

It  is  evident  that,  in  order  to  solve  the  first  problem  which 
arises  from  a  study  of  the  natural  history  of  man,  we  must 
have  a  clear  idea  Avhat  are  these  great  groups  of  beings, 
which  are  called  kingdoms ;  we  must  give  an  account  of 
the  characters  which  distinguish  and  separate  them  from 
each  other,  and  then  of  their  true  scientific  meaning.  It 
will  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose  to  explain  the  well-known 
laws  of  Linnaeus,  supplementing  the  theory  of  the  immorUil 
Swede  by  some  ideas  borrowed  from  Pallas  and  de  Candolle, 
and  by  one  of  the  fundamental  conceptions  which  Adamson 
and  A.  L.  de  Jussieu  have  almost  equally  contributed  to  in- 
troduce into  science. 

11,  It  is  impossible  for  anyone,  whether  learned  or  otherwise, 
not  to  recognise  at  once  the  difference  between  two  kinds  of 
objects  very  distinct  from  each  other :  inanimate  bodies  and 
organised  beings.  Those  are  the  two  groups  into  which 
Pallas  has  divided  kingdoms  under  the  name  of  empires. 
Their  distinction  is  generally  easy,  and  I  shall  confine  my- 
self to  recalling  some  of  the  most  es.scntial  differences. 

Inanimate  bodies,  when  placed  under  favourable  circum- 
stances, last  for  an  indelinite  time,  neither  taking  nor  giving 
anytiiing  to  the  surrounding  world  ;  organised  beings,  under 
whatever  conditions  they  are  placed,  only  last  for  a  fixe<l 
period  of  time,  and,  during  this  existence,  undergo  every 
moment  losses  of  substance  which  they  repair  by  means  of 
materials  taken  from  without.  Inanimate  bodies,  even 
when  they  asstime  the  fixed  and  definite  form  of  crystals, 
arc  formed  indejtendently  of  all  other  bodies  resembling 
them ;  they  have  from  their  conmicncemcnt  fixed  forms, 
and  increa.se  sinij)ly  by  snj)erposition  of  new  layers.  Every 
organised   Ix'ing  is  connected    either  directly    or    indirectly 


Empires  and  Kingdoms  of  N'alurc.  3 

Avith  a  similar  bcinf,^  in  the  interior  of  which  it  first  appeared 
in  the  form  of  a  germ,  tlien  grew  and  acquired  its  definite  form 
by  intussusception. 

In  other  words,  filiation,  nutrition,  birth  and  death,  arc  so 
many  characteristics  of  the  organised  being,  of  which  no 
trace  is  found  in  inanimate  bodies.  I  agree  witli  Pallas  in 
making  inanimate  bodies  compose  tlie  Inorganic  Empire, 
and  organised  beings  the  Organic  Empire. 

I  must  here  make  an  observation,  the  importance  of  wliich 
will  be  easily  understood. 

Tiie  existence  of  the  two  groups  which  have  been  recog- 
nised by  the  good  sense  of  the  general  public  as  well  as  by 
the  science  of  Pallas,  is  a  fact  al)solutely  independent  of  all 
hypothesis.  Whatever  explanation  we  may  propose  to  ac- 
count for  the  differential  phenomena  which  distinguish  them, 
these  phenomena  will  not  the  less  exist ;  the  inanimate  body 
will  never  be  an  orifanised  being. 

To  attempt,  under  any  pretext  whatever,  to  reconcile  or 
confound  these  two  kinds  of  objects  with  each  other,  is  to 
go  in  direct  opposition  to  all  the  progress  made  for  more 
than  a  century,  and  especially  during  the  last  few  years,  in 
physics,  chemistry  and  ph3'siology.  It  is  inexplicable  to  me 
that  some  men,  whose  merits  I  otherwise  acknowledge, 
should  have  recently  again  compared  crystals  to  the  simplest 
living  forms,  to  the  sarcodic  organisms,  as  they  were  called 
by  Dujardin,  who  discovered  them,  and  was  the  first  to  give 
a  comprehensive  theory  of  them  from  minute  observations. 
A  change  of  name  is  useless ;  the  things  remain  the  same, 
and  protoplasm  has  the  same  properties  as  sarcode.  The 
animals,  whose  entire  substance  they  seem  to  form,  have  not 
altered  their  nature  ;  whether  monera  or  amoeba?,  these 
forms  are  the  antipodes  of  the  crystal  from  every  point  of 
view. 

A  crystal,  as  M.  Naudin  has  well  remarked,  closely  re- 
semblfs  one  of  those  regular  piles  of  .shot  which  may  be  seen 
in  every  arsenal.  It  only  incre.'ises  from  the  exterior,  as  the 
pile  is  increased  when  the  soldier  adds  a  fresh  layer  of  shot  ; 


4  The  IJiDiian  Species. 

its  molecules  arc  just  as  immovable  as  the  balls  of  iron.  It 
is  exactly  the  contrary  with  the  organised  being,  and  the 
simpler  its  composition  the  greater  the  contrast.  The  small 
size  of  the  moneron  and  the  ania'ba  prevents,  it  is  true, 
certain  observations.  I  appeal,  however,  to  all  those  natu- 
ralists who  have  studied  certain  marine  sponges  in  a  living 
state.  They  must  like  myself  have  remarked  the  strange 
activity  of  the  mial  x'ddYl][)Ool  in  the  semi-sarcodic  substance 
which  surrounds  their  siliceous  or  horny  skeleton  ;  they  will 
have  seen  the  sea  water  in  which  they  arc  placed  move  with 
a  rapidity  which  it  never  exhibits  when  in  contact  with  any 
other  animal. 

The  reason  is  that,  in  the  organised  being,  the  repose  of 
the  crystal  is  replaced  by  an  incessant  movement ;  that, 
instead  of  remaining  immovable  and  unalterable,  the  mole- 
cules are  unceasingly  undergoing  transformation,  changing 
tlieir  composition,  producing  fresh  substances,  retaining  some 
and  rejecting  others.  Far  from  resembling  a  pile  of  shot, 
the  organised  being  may  much  rather  be  compared  to  the 
combination  of  a  number  of  physico-chemical  apparatus, 
constantly  in  action  to  burn  or  reduce  materials  borrowed 
from  without,  and  ever  making  use  of  their  own  substance 
for  its  incessant  renewal. 

In  other  Avords,  in  the  crystal  once  formed  the  forces 
remain  in  a  state  of  stable  equilibrliim,  which  is  only  in- 
terrupted by  the  influence  of  exterior  causes.  Hence  the 
)»ossibility  of  its  indefinite  continuance  without  any  change 
either  of  its  forms  or  of  its  properties.  In  the  organised 
being  the  C(juilibrium  is  unstable,  or  rather,  there  is  no  equi- 
librium ])r(iperly  so  called.  Every  moment  the  organised 
being  ex|)eiids  as  much  furcc  liS  mailer,  and  owes  its  con- 
tinuance solely  to  the  balance  of  the  <jain  and  loss.  Hence 
the  possibility  of  a  modification  nf  its  jiropertics  and  fnriii 
without  its  ccjLsiug  to  exist. 

Such  art'  lln'  bare  facts  which  rest  upon  no  hypothesis  what- 
ever; and  how  can  wc,  in  the  jircsence  of  these  facts,  com  pan' 
the  crystal  which  grows  in  a  saline  solution  to  the  germ  which 


Empires  and  Kiiit^doius  of  Nature.  5 

becomes  in  succession  embryo,  foetus,  and  finally  a  complete 
animal  ?  How  can  we  confuse  the  inanimate  hothj  with  the 
oiyajiised  being. 

The  two  groups  arc  easily  separated  by  the  phenomena 
they  exhibit.  It  is  the  same  Avith  the  causes  of  the  phe- 
nomenon. 

Naturalists  and  physiologists  are  here  divided.  Some 
would  have  it  that  the  cause,  or  the  causes,  are  identical, 
and  that  conditions,  which  are  almost  accidental,  alone  de- 
termine the  difl'erence  in  the  results  by  changing  their  mode 
of  action.  In  their  opinion  the  formation  of  a  crystal  or  of 
a  moneron  is  only  a  rpiestion  of  residtant. 

Others  consider  living  beings  a.s  the  result  of  a  cau.sc 
entirely  different  from  those  which  act  in  inanimate  bodies, 
and  refer  to  this  cause  alone  everything  which  takes  place 
in  these  beings. 

These  two  methods  appear  to  me,  from  the  exclusive 
element  in  each,  to  be  equally  ill-founded.  It  cannot  be 
denied  that  phenomena  identical  with  those  characteristic 
of  inanimate  bodies  are  found  in  organised  beings,  and  we 
have,  therefore,  no  scientific  reason  to  attribute  them  to 
different  causes. 

But  organised  beings  have  also  their  special  phenomena 
radically  distinct  from,  or  even  opposed  to,  the  former.  Is  it 
possible  to  refer  all  of  them  to  one,  or  to  several,  identical 
causes?  I  think  not.  For  this  reason,  I  admit  with  a  great 
number  of  eminent  men  of  every  age  and  country,  and,  I 
believe,  with  the  majority  of  those  that  respect  modern 
science,  that  organised  beings  owe  their  distinctive  charac- 
teristics to  a  Special  Cause,  to  a  Siyecial  Foire,  to  Life, 
which  in  them  is  a.ssociated  with  the  inorganic  forces.  Fur 
this  reason  I  consider  it  legitimate  to  call  them  Living 
Beings. 

I  shall  often,  however,  return  to  this  class  of  considera- 
tions, in  order  to  make  it  quite  clear  in  what  sense  I  take 
these  words.  Force,  and  Life. 

III.    The    two    Empires    of    Pallas    are    themselves    sub- 


6  TJic  Human  Species. 

divided  into  Kingdoms,  -wliicli  arc  characterised  by  special 
facts  and  plienonieua,  becoming  more  and  more  complicated 
as  we  ascend  the  scale  of  nature. 

And,  in  the  first  place,  I  distinctly  admit  with  de  Candolle 
the  existence  of  a  Sidereal  Kingdom.  To  any  one  who 
considers,  as  far  as  we  are  able,  the  little  that  we  know  of 
the  universe,  the  celestial  bodies,  suns,  planets,  and  comets 
or  satellites  only  appear  as  molecules  of  the  great  All  which 
fills  indefinite  Space.  One  general  phenomenon  which  is 
uncliangeable,  however  varied  in  its  forms,  is,  as  it  were,  the 
attribute  of  these  bodies.  All,  whether  gaseous  or  solid, 
obscure  or  luminous,  hot  or  cold,  move  within  curves  of  the 
same  nature,  obeying  the  laws  discovered  by  Kepler.  It  is 
now  well  known  that  fuved  sUirs  do  not  exist. 

In  order  to  explain  this  phenonunon  philosophers  have 
admitted  the  existence  of  a  force  which  they  have  called 
Gravitation,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  precipitate  the  stars 
towards  one  another,  as  if  they  mutually  attracted  each  other, 
whilst  obeying  the  laws  of  Newton.  Now  it  is  well  known 
that  the  great  Englishman  himself  gave  no  opinion  upon  the 
mode  of  action  of  this  force,  and  that  he  hesitated  between 
the  hypothesis  of  Attraction  and  that  of  Tmpuhion.  The 
first  should  prevail  as  being  more  in  acconlance  with  the 
immediate  results  of  observation  ;  but  the  second  also  has 
had  serious  partisans,  among  wlioin  I  will  only  mention 
M.  de  Tessan. 

Thus  Newton,  in  spite  of  all  his  genius,  cannot  tell  us 
what  wa.s  the  cause  of  the  movement  of  the  stars ;  he  was 
iKjt  even  able  to  determine  the  immediate  mode  of  action  of 
tiiis  cause ;  and  yet  there  is  not  a  scientific  term  more 
universally  received  than  that  of  Gravitation,  there  is  not  a 
case  in  which  the  expression  Force  is  more  generally  ac- 
cepted. Tlie  reason  <»l"  this  is,  that  in  the  presence  of 
general  facts  and  groups  of  phenomena,  it  is  necessary  to 
make  use  of  terms  as  simple  as  possible.  AVe  must,  however, 
avoid  the  delusion  of  thiidiing  tliat  itamliifj  is  ecjuivalent  to 
explain  in  fj. 


Empires  and  Ki)i!^douis  of  N'ature.  7 

In  cases  analogous  to  that  of  which  we  have  been  treating, 
tlie  word  Force  merely  indicates  the  presence  of  an  Un- 
Jcnoiun  Cause,  which  gives  rise  to  a  group  of  fixed  pfieno- 
mena.  In  assigning  names  to  each  of  the  Forces  or 
Unknown  Causes  to  which  we  consider  ourselves  able  to 
refer  certain  groups  of  phenomena,  we  facilitate  the  demon- 
stration and  discussion  of  the  facts.  The  scientific  man 
knows  very  well  that  he  cannot  go  beyond  this. 

It  is  in  this  sense,  and  in  this  sense  alone,  that  I  have 
used  above  the  expressions  Force  and  Life.  Astronomers 
consider  gravitation  the  unknown  cause  of  the  movement  of 
the  stars;  I  consider  Life  as  the  unknown  cause  of  the 
phenomena  which  arc  characteristic  of  organised  beings. 
It  may  be  that  both  gravitation  and  Life,  as  well  as  the 
other  general  forces  are  merely  as  x,  of  which  the  equation 
has  not  yet  been  discovered.  I  shall  presently  return  to 
these  considerations. 

Be  this  as  it  ijiay,  whatever  our  -real  ignorance,  whatever 
the  Cause  of  ^Yhich  we  are  here  treating,  and  though  Iin- 
indalon  i\\o\\\i\  one  day  replace  Attraction  in  our  Theories, 
the  facts  would  still  remain  the  same.  The  stars  would 
still  be  distributed  through  space,  and  subject  to  the  laws  of 
Newton  and  Kepler;  they  would  still  constitute  a  perfectly 
distinct  whole,  in  the  part  assigned  to  the  bodies  which 
compose  it,  and  in  the  nature  of  the  relations  which  unite 
them.     They  would  still  form  the  Sidereal  Kinfjdom. 

This  kingdom  is  then  characterised  by  u  general  i^he- 
iwmeiW)},  the  Keplerian  Movement,  which  may  be  attri- 
buted to  a  single  force,  namely  that  oi  gravitation. 

IV.  Let  us  now  return  to  the  Earth,  the  only  celestial 
body  which  we  can  study  in  detail.  Modem  discoveries, 
however,  judging  from  the  relation  of  the  elements  and  their 
mutual  action,  make  it  almost  certain  that  the  greatest 
similarity  exists  between  the  stars  distributed  in  space, 
between  all  those  at  least  which  form  part  of  our  hcavon.s. 

Let  us  first  establi.sh  the  fact  that  upon  our  globe  we 
again  meet  with  the  Koplerian  Movement  in  falling  bodies. 


8  TJie  Human  Species. 

Attraction  is  here  represented  by  Wei[jht.  Gravitation  re- 
appears with  all  its  laws,  acting  upon  grains  of  dust  as  it 
acts  upon  Avorlds.  The  parts  of  the  whole,  of  cosmos,  as 
Humboldt  would  have  said,  cannot  escape  from  the  force 
which  governs  the  whole. 

But  upon  the  surface  of  our  Earth  and  in  its  interior,  as 
far  as  we  have  been  able  to  penetrate  either  by  direct 
observation  or  scientific  induction,  we  notice  the  appearance 
of  other  movements  which  are  not  subject  to  the  laws  of 
Kepler  or  Newton  ;  phenomena  appear  which  are  entirely 
new  and  perfectly  distinct  from  those  due  to  gravitation. 
They  are  the  physico-chemical  phenomena.  From  their 
number  and  their  difference  in  character  they  were  long 
attributed  to  the  action  of  distinct  forces  which  were  called 
Electricity,  Heat,  Magnetism,  etc.  Modern  science,  however, 
by  transforming,  so  to  speak,  one  into  the  other,  has  demon- 
strated their  original  unity.  Physicists  refer  them  all  to 
nothing  more  than  so  many  manifestations  of  the  undula- 
tions of  ether.  The  vibration  of  the  latter  is  then  the 
fundamental  phenomenon  from  which  all  the  others  rise. 

But  this  ether  is  absolutely  hypothetical ;  its  nature  is 
perfectly  unknown  ;  no  one  knowing  whence  it  acquires 
this  quantity  of  movement,  which,  according  to  actual 
theory,  should  be  subject  neither  to  increase  nor  diminution. 
Now,  in  reality,  we  have  here  the  Unknown  cause  of  all 
physico-chemical  phenomena.  For  this  reason,  and  also  for 
convenience,  we  shall  give  a  name  to  this  unknown  cause, 
to  ih'iH  force,  and  call  it  Etlicrodynamy  (Etherodynamie). 

But  is  not  Etherodynamy  only  a  particular  form,  a  simple 
modification,  or  an  eticct  of  gravitation  ?  Are  not  tlicso 
two  forces  only  different  manifestations  of  a  more  general 
force  ?  Many  eminent  men  are  much  inclined  to  admit 
one  or  other  of  these  hypotheses.  Still,  up  to  the  present 
time,  the  facts  do  not  seem  to  me  to  shew  nmch  agreement 
with  them.  Etherodynamy  is  displayed  even  in  space  and 
among  the  stars  by  variable,  locali.sed  and  temporary  jiheno- 
mena;    the    action    of    gravitation     is    niic,    universal    and 


Empires  and  Kingdoms  of  Nature.  9 

constant.  Man  has  always  been  able  to  exercise  a  certain 
amount  of  control  over  tiic  former;  he  can  produce  at  will 
light  and  heat ;  modern  science  cannot  act  ujjon  the  second. 
We  can  neither  augment  nor  diminish,  reflect  or  refract,  or 
polarise  weight  ;  we  cannot  aiTest  its  action.  Even  in  the 
full  of  bodies  the  regularity  in  the  acceleration  of  tlie  motion 
l)roves  that  the  cause  of  this  movement  is  subject  to  no 
alteration.  Here  then  is  no  iranmnutation  of  force  i\vc\\\x\x 
to  that  in  a  machine  worked  by  electricity  or  heat. 

But  whatever  be  the  progress  of  science,  and  though  M. 
de  Tessan's  theory  should  be  confirmed  by  experiment,  the 
difference  between  the  phenomena  would  not  be  diminished ; 
the  conclusions  to  be  draw^n  from  the  facts  in  connection 
with  the  question  we  are  here  discussing  would  remain  the 
same. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark  that  the  physico- 
chemical  phenomena  produced  by  etherodynamy  can  act 
upon  masses  or  be  exclusively  molecular.  They  are  in  all 
cases  similar  to  those  which  depend  upon  gravitation,  they 
are  subject  to  invariable  laws  and  are  always  repeated  in 
a  similar  manner  when  produced  under  similar  circum- 
stances. 

No  antagonism,  it  is  true,  exists  between  gravitation  and 
etherodynamy.  It  is  no  less  true  that  the  action  of  the 
first  is  always  disturbed  in  a  peculiar  manner  by  that  of  the 
second,  and  that  in  some  phenomena  it  seems  as  if  the 
latter  would  neutralise  the  former.  This  fact  is  most 
strikingly  shown  in  some  of  the  commonest  experiments  in 
physics.  The  gold  leaves  of  the  electroscope  separate,  the 
pith -balls  are  attracted  towards  electrified  bodies  in  spite 
of  their  weight,  and  are  repelled  with  a  rapidity  greater 
than  that  which  would  result  merely  from  their  own  weight. 
And  yet  these  bodies  have  no  more  ceased  to  possess  weight 
than  those  masses  of  iron  raised  by  the  powerful  mao-nets  of 
M.  Jamin.  Etherodynamy  in  these  two  ca.ses  merely 
overcame  gravitation  and  either  modified  or  imitated  its 
action. 


lo  TJic  Hunicin  Species. 

Those  terrestrial  bodies  wliicli  present  no  other  pheno- 
mena than  those  which  can  be  referred  to  either  gi-avita- 
tion  or  etherod^mamy  have,  since  the  time  of  Linna?us,  been 
termed  Inanimate  Bodies.  Together  they  constitute  the 
Mineral  Kingdom.  We  see  that  the  existence  and  the 
distinction  of  this  gi-oup  are  perfectly  independent  of  any 
hypothesis  intended  to  explain  the  phenomena. 

Two  kinds  of  iihenomena  then  are  characteristic  of  the 
mineral  kingdom  :  p/ie?iome?2(Z  of  the  Keplerian  movement 
and  'physico-chemical  phenomena,  -which  may  be  attri- 
buted to  the  action  of  two  forces  :  gravitation  and  ethero- 
dynamy. 

V.  The  sidereal  and  mineral  kingdoms  form  the  Inorganic 
Empire.  Passing  from  it  we  enter  the  domain  of  organised 
and  living  beings.  We  have  already'seen  the  essential  phe- 
nomena by  which  they  are  distinguished.  These  phenomena 
differ  essentially  from  all  those  which  we  have  observed  in 
inanimate  bodies.  It  seems  to  me,  therefore,  necessary  to 
attribute  them  to  a  special  cause, — to  Life. 

I  know  that  in  the  present  day  any  one  making  use  of 
this  word  is  readily  accused  by  a  great  number  of  physicists 
and  chemists,  and  by  an  entire  physiological  school,  of  in- 
troducing into  science  a  vague  and  almost  mysterious  expres- 
sion. There  is,  however,  nothing  in  it  more  vague  or  mys- 
terious than  in  the  word  gravitation. 

It  is  very  true  that  we  do  not  know  what  Life  is ;  but  no 
more  do  we  know  ^vhat  the  force  is  that  set  the  stars  in 
motion  and  retains  them  in  their  orbits.  If  astronomers 
have  been  right  in  giving  to  the  force,  or  iinkmnvn  cause, 
which  gives  the  worlds  their  mathematical  movements, 
naturalists  have  a  perfect  right  to  designate  by  a  special 
term  that  unknown  cause  which  produces  filiation,  birth 
and  dcatli. 

It  will  bo  ajjparcnt  that  my  idea  of  Life  is  not  tlic  same 
as  it  was  with  many  ancient  vitalists,  that  it  is  no  more  the 
arche  of  van  Ibimont  than  i\\(i  vital  principh  of  liarthez. 
Its  function  appears  to  mo  very  ditTerent  to  that  attributed 


Empires  and  Kingdoms  of  Nature.  1 1 

to  it  by  most  of  our  piotlocessors.anJ  wliich  is  .still  attributed 
to  it  by  some  pliy.siol()<,nsts. 

Far  from  merely  animating  the  organs,  it  is  closely  asso- 
ciated with  the  furces  of  whit-li  we  have  already  spoken.  Li  vino- 
beings  arc  heavy,  and  therefore  subject  to  gravitation  ;  they 
are  the  seat  of  numerous  and  various  physico-chemical  phe- 
nomena -which  arc  indispensable  to  their  existence  and  which 
must  be  referred  to  the  action  of  ctherodynamy.  But  these 
phenomena  arc  here  manifested  under  the  influence  of 
n  not  her  force.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  results  of  these 
phenomena  are  often  quite  ditfereut  to  those  in  inanimate 
bodies,  and  that  living  beings  have  their  special  products. 
Life  is  not  antagonistic  to  the  inanimate  forces,  but  it  governs 
and  rules  their  action  by  its  laws.  Therefore  it  makes  them 
produce  tissues,  organs  and  individuals  instead  of  crystals ; 
it  organises  germs,  and  maintains  through  space  and  time, 
in  spite  of  the  most  complex  metamorphoses,  that  luiitij  of 
definite  living  forms  which  we  call  Species. 

If  the  anti-vitalists  would  only  seriously  reflect  upon  the 
matter,  they  would  acknowledge  that,  considered  from  this 
point  of  view,  there  is  nothing  more  mysterious  in  living 
beings  than  in  some  of  the  commonest  plienomcna  presented 
by  inanimate  bodies.  The  intervention  of  Life  as  a  modify- 
ing agent  of  actions  purely  etherodynamic  may  be  as  easily 
admitted  as  that  of  ctherodynamy  itself  modifying  and  over- 
coming the  action  of  weight.  It  is  just  as  strange  to  see  a 
piece  of  iron  attracted  and  supported  by  a  magnet,  as  to  see 
carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  nitrogen  combine  and  dispose 
themselves  so  as  to  form  an  animal  or  vegetable  cell  instead 
of  any  imaginable  inorganic  composition. 

1  have  repeatedly,  and  for  many  years,  maintained  the  doc- 
trine which  I  have  sunmied  up  here.  It  seems  to  me  confirmed 
in  the  highest  degree  by  the  researches  undertaken  fur  the 
elucidation  of  the  problem  of  which  we  are  treating.  The 
experiences  of  M.  Bernard  in  particular,  relative  to  the 
action  exercised  by  anajsthetics  upon  plants  as  well  as  upon 
animals,  makes  it  impossible  for  us  to  doubt  for  a  m.omcnt 


12  TIic  Unman  Species. 

the  intervention  of  an  agent  distinct  from  pliy.sioo-cliemical 
forces  in  organic  beings.  In  employing  the  word  Life  to 
designate  this  agent,  I  only  make  use  of  an  established 
expression,  ■without  pretending  to  go  beyond  the  information 
gained  from  experiment  and  scientific  observation. 

Beings,  in  which  life  alone  is  added  to  gravitation  and 
etherodynamy  constitute  tlie  Ver/etahle  Kingdom.  Now 
there  is  one  general  fact  displayed  by  this  group,  the 
sisrnificance  of  which  has  not,  it  seems  to  me,  been  sufii- 
ciently  understood.  With  the  exception  of  certain  pheno- 
mena of  itnconscious  irritability  which  have  long  been 
known  in  some  plants  of  a  superior  order,  and  of  facts,  pro- 
bably of  the  same  class,  which  have  been  established  chiefly 
with  reference  to  some  reproductive  organs  of  plants  of  an 
inferior  order,  every  movement  wiiich  takes  place  in  plants 
appears  to  be  produced  solely  by  inanimate  forces.  The 
transfer  of  matter  in  particular,  which  is  necessary  for  the 
development  and  sustenance  of  every  vegetable,  belongs  to 
actions  of  this  kind.  Can  we  believe  that  these  forces,  as 
they  are  known  to  us  from  innumerable  experiments,  could, 
if  left  to  themselves,  have  formed  an  oak,  or  even  raised  a 
mushroom  ?  Can  we  believe  that  they  could  have  organised 
tlie  acorn  or  the  spore,  and  hidden  in  those  minute  bodies 
the  power  of  reproducing  the  parent?  And  yet  without 
them  the  vegetable  cannot  exist.  But,  in  my  opinion, 
nothing  makes  their  real  subordination  more  apparent  than 
the  importance  of  their  part  in  the  process  of  execution. 
They  may  be  compared  to  workmen  raising  an  edifice  under 
the  eye  of  the  architect  who  has  made  the  plan. 

Are  wc  then  to  conclude  that  life  is  an  intelligent  force, 
conscious  of  the  part  it  plays,  and  enjoying  the  dominion  it 
exercises  over  the  subordinate  inanimate  forces  ?  Not  at 
all.  Like  these  forces,  it  is  ruled  by  general  and  fixed  laws. 
Nevertheless,  we  do  not  find  in  the  application  of  these  laws, 
and  in  the  results  t<j  which  they  lead,  the  mathematical 
precision  of  the  laws  and  phenomena  of  gravitation  and 
etherodynamy.     'J'lieir  mode  of  action  merely  seems  to  oscil- 


Empii'cs  and  Kingdoms  of  Natitrc.  1 3 

late  between  limits  which  remain  impassable.  This  kind  of 
liberty,  and  the  bounds  imposed  upon  it,  are  conspicuous 
ill  tlio  constant  diversity  of  the  jiroducts  of  life,  a  diversity 
wliieli  contrasts  in  so  striking  a  manner  with  the  uniformity 
of  tlie  products  of  etherodynamy.  Crystals,  when  similar  in 
composition,  and  when  formed  under  similar  circumstances, 
resemble  each  other  perfectly  ;  but  we  never  find  two  leaves 
exactly  alike  upon  the  same  tree. 

The  vegetable  kingdom  is,  tlierefore,  characterised  by  three 
kinds  of  plicnvmena  :  the  Kephi'icm  movement,  physico- 
theviical  2>henomcna,  and  vital  pltenomena,  which  may  be 
ascribed  to  the  action  of  three  forces  :  Gravitation,  Ethero- 
ihjnamy,  and  Life. 

VI.  We  find  repeated  among  animals  all  the  phenomena 
which  we  have  noticed  amongst  plants,  and,  especially  in 
the  highest  orders,  those  movements  due  to  unconscious 
irritability,  of  which  examples  are  presented  by  plants. 
Some  eminent  men,  Lamarck  among  the  number,  have  even 
wished  to  refer  all  acts  performed  by  inferior  animals  to  this 
order  of  phenomena.  But  here  the  author  of  La  Philoso- 
phie  Zoolofjique  has  fallen  into  an  anatomical  error,  which  has 
been  long  since  recognised  ;  and  whoever  has  lived,  even  for 
a  short  time,  by  the  sea-side,  or  has  followed  closely  the 
habits  and  actions  of  worms  and  zoophytes  will  certainly 
protest  against  this  manner  of  regarding  them. 

Pa.ssing  from  the  plant  to  the  animal,  the  latter  executes 
movements  belonging  either  to  the  part  or  to  the  whole 
which  arc  perfectly  independent  of  the  laws  of  gravitation 
and  etherodynamy.  The  regulating  and  determining  cause 
of  these  movements  is  evidently  within  the  animal  itself.  It 
is  the  Will.  But  the  Will  itself  is  intimately  connected 
with  sensibility  and  consciousness.  To  everyone  who  judges 
animals  by  what  he  finds  takes  place  within  himself,  personal 
experiment  and  observation  prove  that  the  animal  feels, 
jmhjcs,  and  ivills,  that  is  to  .say  rca.ions,  and  cun.seciuently 
is  intelliyent. 

This  proposition  will,  I  know,  be  contested  by  men  whose 


14  The  Human  Sj)ca'cs. 

learning  I  profoundly  respect,  and  objections  will  be  made 
on  all  sides.  On  the  one  hand  the  Automatism  of  Descartes 
will  be  revived  in  some  schools,  and  will  now  be  supported 
by  physiology  and  the  experiments  of  vivisection.  I  am  far 
from  denying  the  great  interest  which  is  attached  to  the 
latter,  and  to  the  phenomena  of  reflex  actions.  But  the 
conclusions  which  are  drawn  from  them  appear  to  me  singu- 
larly exaggerated  ;  Carpenter  has  rightly  opposed  them  with 
personal  experiment.  I  will  add  that  the  study  of  animals 
placed  far  below,  and  certainly  inferior  to,  the  frog,  would 
doubtless  lead  to  very  diftercnt  interpretations.  Moreover, 
Huxley  himself  admits  that  animals  are  probably  sensible 
and  conscious  automata.  But  if  they  were  merely  machines 
we  should  be  obliged  to  allow  that  they  performed  their 
functions  as  2/ they  felt,  judged,  and  willed. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  name  of  philosophy  and  psycho- 
logy, I  shall  be  accused  of  confounding  certain  intellectual 
attributes  of  the  human  reason  with  the  exclusively  sen^«7a'C 
faculties  of  animals.  I  shall  presently  endeavour  to  answer 
this  criticism  from  the  standpoint  which  should  never  be 
(quitted  by  the  naturalist,  that,  namely,  of  experiment  and 
observation.  I  shall  here  confine  myself  to  saying  that,  in 
my  opinion,  the  animal  is  intelligent,  and,  although  a  rudi- 
mentary being,  its  intelligence  is  nevertheless  of  the  same 
nature  as  that  of  man.  It  is,  moreover,  very  unecjually 
distributed  among  the  animal  species  ;  in  this  respect  there 
are   many  intervening   stages    between    the  oyster  and  the 

In  atldition  to  the  phenomena  which  spring  from  the  intelli- 
gence and  reasoning,  we  find  in  animals  other  imjiulses  which 
arise  from  Instinct,  a  blind  impulse,  or  at  least  apparently  so, 
which  often  is  the  characteristic  of  animal  species,  and  with 
wiiich  each  iiulividual  is  endowed.  These  two  orders  of  facts 
arc  very  often  confounded,  but  the  confusion  can  bo  explained 
a.s  follows.  In  the  first  ])Iaco,  instinct  has  lus  its  ol)ject  the 
attainment  of  a  determined  and  fixe<l  result,  but  in  the 
multitude  of  ways  and  means  necessary  to  attain  this  result 


Empires  and  Kingdoms  of  A^afurc.  1 5 

a  portion  whicli  is  often  very  largo  is  due  to  the  intelligence. 
'J'lie  distinction  is  not  always  easy.  It  will,  moreover,  be 
apparent  that  I  cannot  here  enter  into  the  details  required 
by  the  examination  of  this  question,  so  entirely  foreign  to 
that  which  is  before  us. 

Ik'sidc's  the  acts  of  intelligence  and  instinct,  phenomena 
have  been  established  among  animals  which  are  closely 
connected  with  what  we  call  charnder,  senilment,  or 
passion.  The  familiarity  of  the  terms  is  in  itself  a  proof 
that  upon  this  point  ordinary  observation  has  outstripped 
scientific  examination. 

All  these  i)henomena  are  perfectly  new  and  have  no 
analogy  with  those  which  we  have  noticed  in  the  preceding 
kingdoms.  They  evidently  justify  the  formation  of  an 
equally  important  group.  The  animal  Jcingdom  is  thus 
universally  admitted,  independently  of  every  theory  which 
attempts  to  explain  its  characters. 

Facts  radically  different  cannot  be  attributed  to  the  same 
cause.  We  must  admit,  then,  that  the  characteristic  pheno- 
mena of  the  animal  depend  upon  something  different  to 
those  met  with  in  the  vegetable  or  mineral  kingdoms.  They 
are,  moreover,  united  by  such  intimate  relations,  that  it 
would  be  impossible  not  to  attribute  them  to  a  single  cause. 
From  motives  already  mentioned  we  will  give  a  name  to 
this  Unhnown  Cause,  and,  making  use  of  an  expression 
already  established,  though  open,  I  can  see,  to  more  than 
one  criticism,  we  will  call  it  the  Animal  Mind  (I'dme 
an  i  male). 

Does  the  animal  mind  liberate  the  beings  it  animates  from 
the  inferior  forces  ?  By  no  means,  for  we  find  them  repeated 
witii  all  their  characteristics.  In  order  to  raise  the  least  of 
its  organs,  the  animal  must  contend  with  weight ;  it  cannot 
pcrfoi-m  the  smallest  movement  without  the  intervention  of 
])hysico-chemical  phenomena  ;  it  cannot  breathe,  and,  there- 
fore, cannot  live,  without  constantly  consuming  some  of  its 
constituents.  In  tlie  animal,  moreover,  just  as  much  as  in 
the    plant,   the   inanimate   forces,  etherodynamy  especially. 


i6  The  Human  Species. 

appear  in  their  double  character  of  constancy  and  of  ubiquity 
in  the  accomplishment  of  phenomena,  and  of  subordination 
to  life,  which  governs  their  action  in  the  animal  as  in  the 
plant. 

Moreover,  a  large  part  is  reserved  for  purely  vegetative 
life  in  animals  of  the  highest  order.  The  entire  organism  is 
formed  without  any  intervention  of  the  animal  mind.  Again, 
a  certain  number  of  organs  always  escape  more  or  less  from 
the  influence  of  the  latter,  and  seem  to  be  subject  to  life 
alone.  Now  these  organs  are  precisely  those  upon  which 
nutrition,  and  consequently  the  constitution  and  duration  of 
the  whole,  depend.  Thus  life,  which  reigned  supreme  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  now  in  its  turn,  appears  in  a  subordinate 
character.  We  might  say  that  it  was  essentially  entrusted 
with  the  organisation  and  maintenance  of  the  instruments 
of  the  animal  mind. 

As  to  the  latter,  even  where  its  intervention  is  most 
questioned,  it  is  only  revealed  to  observation  by  voluntary 
movements.  Now  personal  experiment  and  the  faculty  of 
reasoning,  arc  necessary  to  enable  us  to  comprehend  the 
nature,  and  appreciate  the  signification  of  these  movements. 
It  is  only  by  regarding  himself  as  normal,  that  man  can 
judge  of  the  animal,  a  subject  to  which  I  shall  presently 
return. 

Phenomena  of  four  Jcinds  are  then  characteristic  of  the 
Animal  Kingdom  :  'phenomena  of  the  Keplerian  movement; 
2>hyiiico-chemical  2^henomena ;  vital  j^henomena ;  and^jAcTio- 
mena  of  voluntary  movement;  attributable  to  the  action 
of 'four  forces:  gravitation,  cthcroch/namy,  life,  and  the 
animal  mind. 

VII.  Athough  the  preceding  statements  are  so  much 
abridged,  I  have  thought  it  well  to  give  the  condensed 
results  in  the  following  table  : 


Empires  and  Kingdoms  of  N'atnre.  ij 


KUPIBES. 


Inorganic 
(I'allaK). 


Orornnic 

(I'ullas), 


KINGDOMS. 


'^Sidereal     .     . 
(lie  C'andolle) 

Mineral      .     . 
(Linmuus) 


'Vcprtable  . 
(Linn;uus) 


Animal .     . 
(Linniuus) 


PHENOMENA. 


(  Phenomena  of  the  Kep- 
(      Icrian  movement  .     . 

!  Phenomena  of  tlic  Kcp- 
lerian  movement  .     . 
Physico-chemical    phe- 
nomena   

I  Phenomena  of  the  Kcp- 
j  lerian  movement  .  . 
<,  Physico-chemical    phe- 

I     nomcna 

I  Vital  phenomena .     .     . 
Phenomena  of  the  Kep- 
lerian  movement  .     . 
Physico-chemical    phe- 
nomena    

Vital  phenomena      .     . 

Phenomena  of  voluntary 

movemeat    .    .    .    . 


CAUSES. 


Gravita'.ion. 
Gravitation. 
Etherodynamy, 
Gravitation. 


Etherodynamy, 
Life. 


Gravitation. 

Etherodynamy, 
Life.  ^ 

The     Animal 

Mind. 


From  this  table,  and  the  expansions  which  it  siini.s  up,  rise 
the  following  conclusions. 

1.  Each  kingdom  is  characterised  by  a  certain  number  of 
phenomena,  whose  existence  is  independent  of  all  hypothesis 
and  theory. 

2.  The  phenomena  increase  in  number  from  the  sidereal 
to  the  animal  kinfjdom. 

3.  In  passing  from  one  kingdom  to  another,  and  proceeding 
from  the  simple  to  the  composite,  a  number  of  phenomena 
appear,  which  are  entirely  unknown  in  the  inferior  kingdoms. 

4.  The  superior  kingdom  presents,  independently  of  its 
special  phenomena,  the  characteristic  phenomena  of  the 
inferior  kingdoms. 

5.  Each  group  of  phenomena  indicated  in  the  table  is 
connected  with  a  small  number  of  fundamental  phenomena, 
which  can,  in  some  cases  with  certainty,  in  others  with  more 
or  less  probability,  be  referred  to  a  single  cause. 

G.  All  these  causes  are  equally  unknown  to  us  as  regards 
their  nature  and  mode  of  action.  We  know  them  merely 
by  phenomena.     We  can,  therefore,  make  no  conjecture  as 


'  1 8  The  Human  Species. 

to  the  relations,  more  or  less  close,  which  may  exist  between 
them. 

7.  We  nevertheless  give  names  to  these  causes  for  the 
sake  of  convenience,  and  of  facilitating  the  discussion  of  tlie 
facts, 

VIII.  We  can  now  return  to  the  problem  which  gave  rise 
to  these  expansions,  and  ask  the  question :  Whether  Man 
should  take  his  place  in  the  animal  kingdom  1  a  question 
which  evidently  leads  to  another :  Is  man  distinguished  from 
animals  by  important  and  characteristic  phenomena,  abso- 
lutely unknown  in  the  latter  \  For  more  than  forty  years  I 
have  answered  this  question  in  the  affirmative,  and  my  con- 
victions, tested  by  many  controversies,  are  now  stronger 
than  ever. 

But  it  is  neither  in  the  material  disposition,  nor  in  the 
action  of  his  physical  organism,  that  we  must  look  for  these 
phenomena.  From  this  point,  of  view,  man  is  neither  more 
nor  less  than  an  animal.  From  an  anatomical  point  of  view, 
there  is  less  difference  between  man  and  the  superior  order 
of  apes,  than  between  the  latter  and  the  inferior  orders. 
The  microscope  reveals  equally  striking  resemblances  between 
the  elements  of  the  human  organism  and  those  of  the  animal 
organism  ;  and  chemical  analysis  leads  to  the  same  result. 
It  was  easy  to  foresee  that  the  action  of  elements  and  organs 
would  be  exactly  the  same  in  man  and  beast,  and  such  was 
found  to  be  the  case. 

Passions,  sentiments,  and  characters,  establish  between 
animals  and  ourselves  equally  close  relations.  The  animal 
loves  and  hates  ;  we  recognise  in  it  irritability  and  jealousy  ; 
unwearying  patience,  and  immutable  confidence.  In  our 
domestic  species,  these  differences  are  more  apparent,  or 
perhaps  we  only  notice  them  more  closely.  Who  has  not 
known  dogs  whicli  have  been  playful  or  snappish,  affectionate 
or  savage,  cowardly  or  courageous,  friendly  with  everybody, 
or  exclusive  in  their  affections. 

Again,  man  has  true  instincts,  were  it  only  that  of  socia- 
bility.    Faculties,  however,  of  this  order,  which  are  so  fully 


The  Human  Kingdom.  19 

developed  in   certain  animals,  in  man   are  evidently  very 
much  reduced  in  comparison  with  the  intelligence. 

The  relative  development  of  the  latter  certainly  estab- 
lishes an  enormous  difference  between  man  and  animal  It 
is  not,  however,  the  inteixsity  of  a  phenomenon  which 
gives  value  to  it  from  our  present  point  of  view,  but 
simply  its  nature.  The  question  is  whether  human  intelli- 
gence and  animal  intelligence  can  be  considered  as  of  the 
same  order. 

As  a  rule  philosophers,  psychologists,  and  theologians,  have 
replied  in  the  negative,  and  naturalists  in  the  affirmative. 
This  opposition  can  be  easily  understood.  The  former  make 
the  human  mind,  considered  as  an  indivisible  whole,  their 
principal  study,  and  attribute  to  it  all  our  faculties.  Unable 
to  deny  the  similarity,  external  at  least,  between  certain 
animal  and  human  acts,  and  yet  being  anxious  to  clearly 
distinguish  man  from  the  brute,  they  have  given  to  the  acts 
different  interpretations  as  they  have  been  performed  by  one 
or  the  other.  Naturalists  have  regarded  the  phenomena 
more  closely  without  thinking  of  anything  else,  and  when 
they  have  seen  the  animal  behave  in  the  same  manner  as 
they  themselves  would  have  done  under  the  given  circum- 
stances, they  have  concluded  that  the  motives  of  the  action 
must  ])e  fundamentally  the  same.  I  must  ask  permission  to 
remain  a  naturalist,  and  to  recall  some  facts,  and  regard 
them  from  this  point  of  view. 

The  theologians  themselves  allow  that  the  animal  pos- 
sesses sensation,  formation  and  association  of  images,  im- 
agination, and  passion  (R.  P.  de  BonniotJ,  They  allow 
that  the  animal  feels  the  relation  of  fitness  or  of  unfitness 
between  sensible  objects  and  his  own  senses  ;  that  it  experi- 
ences sensible  attractions  and  repulsions,  and  acts  perfectly 
in  consequence,  and  that  in  this  sense  the  animal  reasons 
and  judges  (I'Abbe  A.  Lecomte).  Therefore,  they  add,  we 
cannot  doubt  but  that  the  animal  possesses  a  principle 
superior  to  that  of  mere  matter,  and  we  may  even  give  it 
the  name   of   mind    (R.   P.  Bonniot).     But  in  spite  of  all, 


20  The  HiLinan  Species. 

theologians  and  philosophers  maintain  that  the  animal  cannot 
be  intelligent,  because  it  has  neither  innate  sense,  conscious- 
ness nor  reason. 

Let  us  leave  for  a  moment  the  last  term,  with  which  the 
idea  of  phenomena  which  we  shall  presently  discuss,  is 
connected  in  the  mind  of  our  opponents.  Is  it  true  that 
animals  are  wanting  in  innate  sense,  and  are  not  conscious  of 
their  actions  ?  Upon  what  facts  of  observation  does  this 
opinion  rest?  We  each  one  of  us  feel  that  we  possess  this 
sense,  that  we  enjoy  this  faculty.  By  means  of  speech  we 
can  convey  to  another  the  results  of  our  personal  experience. 
But  this  source  of  information  is  wanting  when  we  come  to 
deal  with  animals.  Neither  in  them  nor  in  ourselves  are 
innate  sense  and  consciousness  revealed  to  the  outer  world 
by  any  special  characteristic  movement.  It  is,  therefore, 
only  by  interpreting  these  movements,  and  by  judging  from 
ourselves,  that  we  can  form  an  idea  of  the  motives  from 
which  the  animal  acts. 

Proceeding  in  this  manner,  it  seems  to  me  impossible  to 
refuse  to  allow  animals  a  certain  amount  of  consciousness  of 
their  actions.  Doubtless,  they  do  not  form  such  an  exact 
estimate  of  them,  as  even  an  illiterate  man  can  do.  But  we 
may  be  very  certain  that  when  a  cat  is  trying  to  catch 
sparrows  on  level  ground,  and  creeps  along  the  hollows, 
availing  herself  of  every  tuft  of  grass  however  small,  she 
knows  what  she  is  about,  just  as  well  as  the  hunter  who 
glides  in  a  crouching  attitude  from  one  bush  to  another. 
We  may  be  equally  sure  that  kittens  and  puppies  when  they 
fight,  growl  and  bite  without  hurting  each  other,  know  very 
well  that  they  are  playing  and  not  in  earnest. 

I  must  here  beg  permission  to  relate  the  remembrance  of 
my  struggles  with  a  mastiff  of  pure  breed,  and  which  had 
attained  its  full  size,  remaining,  however,  very  young  in 
character.  We  were  very  good  friends,  and  often  played 
together.  As  soon  as  ever  I  assumed  an  attitude  of  defence 
before  him,  he  would  leap  upon  me  with  every  appearance 
of  fury,  seizing  in  his  mouth  the  arm  which  I  had  used 


The  Hnman  Kiiigdo7n.  21 

as  a  sliielJ.  He  might  have  marked  my  arm  deeply  at 
the  first  onset,  but  he  never  pressed  it  in  a  manner  that 
could  inflict  the  slightest  pain.  I  often  seized  him  by  his 
lower  jaw  with  my  hand,  but  he  never  used  his  teeth  so 
as  to  bite  me.  And  yet  the  next  moment  the  same  teeth 
would  indent  a  piece  of  wood,  I  tried  to  tear  away  from 
them. 

This  animal  evidently  knew  what  it  was  doing  when  it 
feigned  the  passion  precisely  o'p'posite  to  that  which  it  really 
felt;  when,  even  in  the  excitement  of  play,  it  retained 
sufficient  mastery  over  its  movements  to  avoid  hurting  me. 
In  reality  it  played  a  part  in  a  comedy,  and  we  cannot  act 
without  being  conscious  of  it. 

It  is  useless  for  me  to  insist  upon  many  other  facts  which 
I  could  bring  forward,  and  I  refer  my  reader  to  the  works  of 
those  naturalists  who  have  studied  the  question,  especially 
those  of  F.  Cuvier.  But  the  more  I  reflect  upon  it,  the 
more  is  my  conviction  confirmed  that  man  and  animals 
think  and  reason  in  virtue  of  a  faculty  which  is  common  to 
both,  and  which  is  only  far  more  developed  in  the  latter 
than  in  the  former. 

What  I  have  just  said  of  the  intelligence  I  do  not  hesitate 
to  say  also  of  language,  the  highest  manifestation  of  the 
intelligence.  It  is  true  that  man  alone  possesses  speech,  that 
is  to  say  the  articulate  voice.  But  two  classes  of  animals 
possess  voice.  With  us  it  is,  again,  only  a  high  degree  of 
perfection,  nothing  radically  new.  In  both  cases  the  sounds, 
produced  by  the  air  which  is  thrown  into  vibration  by  the 
voluntary  movements  accorded  to  the  larynx,  convey  im- 
pressions and  personal  thoughts  which  are  understood  by 
individuals  of  the  same  species.  The  mechanism  of  the 
production,  the  object  and  the  result  are  fundamentally  the 
same. 

It  is  true  that  the  language  of  animals  is  most  rudimentary 
and,  in  this  respect,  in  harmony  with  the  inferiority  of  their 
intelligence.  We  might  say  that  it  was  almost  entirely 
composed   of  interjections.      Such   as   it   is,    however,   this 


2  2  The  Human  Species. 

language  is  sufficient  for  the  wants  of  the  mammalia  and 
birds  who  understand  it  perfectly,  while  man  himself  can 
learn  it  without  very  much  trouble.  The  hunter  can  dis- 
tinguish the  accents  of  anger,  love,  pleasure,  sorrow,  the  call 
and  the  signal  of  alarm  and  makes  use  of  these  indications 
as  an  unfailing  guide,  and  often  imitates  these  accents  and 
cries  in  such  a  manner  as  to  deceive  the  animal.  Of  course 
I  exclude  from  the  language  of  brutes,  the  song,  properly  so 
called,  of  birds,  that  of  the  nightingale  for  example.  It 
appears  to  me  void  of  all  meaning,  as  are  the  notes  of  a 
singer,  and  I  do  not  believe  in  the  interpretation  of  Dupont 
de  Nemours. 

It  is  not,  therefore,  in  the  plienomena  connected  with  the 
intelligence  that  we  shall  find  the  basis  of  a  fundamental 
distinction  between  man  and  animals. 

But  in  man  the  existence  has  been  proved  of  fundamental 
phenomena  of  which  nothing  either  in  living  beings  or 
inanimate  bodies  has  hitherto  been  able  to  give  us  any  con- 
ception. 1st.  Man  has  the  perception  of  moral  good  and 
evil  independently  of  all  physical  welfare  or  suffering.  2nd. 
Man  believes  in  superior  beings  who  can  exercise  an  in- 
fluence upon  his  destiny.  3rd.  Man  believes  in  the  prolon- 
gation of  his  existence  after  this  life. 

The    last   two   phenomena   have  always  been  so  closely 
connected   that   it   is   natural  to  refer   them   to  the   same 
faculty,  to  that  namely  of  Religion.     The  first  depends  on 
,  Morality. 

Psychologists  attribute  religion  and  morality  to  the  reason, 
and  make  the  latter  an  attribute  of  man.  But  with  the 
reason  they  connect  the  highest  phenomena  of  the  intelli- 
gence. In  my  opinion,  in  so  doing  they  confound  and  refer 
to  a  common  origin,  facts  entirely  different.  Thus  since 
they  are  unable  to  recognise  either  moraUty  or  religion  in 
animals,  Avhich  in  reality  do  not  possess  these  two  faculties, 
they  are  forced  to  refuse  them  intelligence  also,  although  the 
same  animals,  in  my  opinion,  give  decisive  proof  of  their 
possession  of  tliis  faculty  every  moment. 


The  Human  Kingdom.  23 

The  generality  of  the  phenomena  which  we  are  discussing 
is,  I  believe,  indisputable,  especially  since  the  investigation 
to  which  it  has  been  subjected  by  the  Society  of  Anthro- 
pology in  Paris,  where  the  question  of  the  human  kingdom 
has  been  long  and  seriously  discussed.  I  cannot  here  re- 
produce the  discussion,  even  in  an  abridged  form,  but  refer 
my  readers  either  to  the  summary  in  my  Rapport  sur  les 
progres  de  Vanthroxiologie  en  France,  or  to  the  Bulletins 
of  the  Society.  I  shall,  moreover,  go  into  this  subject  in 
some  detail  in  the  chapters  devoted  to  the  moral  and  reli- 
gious characters  of  the  human  races. 

A  host  of  manifestations  of  human  activity  are  derived,  as 
so  many  consequences,  from  the  three  facts  which  I  have 
pointed  out.  Customs  and  institutions  of  every  kind  are 
connected  with  them  ;  they  alone  explain  some  of  the  great 
events  which  change  the  destiny  of  nations  and  the  face  of 
the  earth. 

For  reasons  which  I  have  several  times  pointed  out  already, 
we  must  give  a  name  to  the  Unknown  Cause  from  which 
are  derived  the  phenomena  of  morality  and  religion.  We 
will  call  it  the  Human  mind  (I'ame  humaine). 

I  must  here  repeat  the  formal  declaration  which  I  have 
often  made  already.  When  I  employ  this  term,  which  is 
established  by  custom,  it  is  with  the  understanding  that  I 
strictly  confine  myself  within  the  limits  imposed  upon  any- 
one who  intends  to  be  exclusively  faithful  to  science,  experi- 
ment and  observation.  I  consider  the  human  principle  as 
the  Unknown  Cause  of  exclusively  human  phenomena.  To 
go  beyond  that  would  be  to  encroach  upon  the  domain  of 
philosophy  or  theology.  To  them  belongs  the  solution  of 
the  formidable  problems  raised  by  the  existence  of  the 
'something'  which  makes  a  man  of  an  organism  entirely 
animal,  and  I  give  everyone  leave  to  choose  from  the  pro- 
posed solutions  the  one  Avhich  agi-ees  most  satisfactorily  with 
the  demands  of  his  own  feelings  and  reason. 

But  whatever  this  solution  may  be,  it  will  in  no  way  affect 
the    phenomena  ;   those    Avhich  I   have  just  described  will 


24  The  Human  Species. 

neither  be  diminished  nor  modified.  Now  they  exist  in  man 
alone,  and  it  is  impossible  to  deny  their  importance.  Thus 
they  distinguish  man  from  the  animal  as  much  as  the 
phenomena  of  intelligence  distinguish  the  animal  from  the 
plant,  and  as  the  phenomena  of  life  distinguish  the  plant 
from  the  mineral.  They  are,  therefore,  the  attributes  of  a 
kingdom,  which  we  will  call  the  Huiiuin  Kingdom. 

From  this  conclusion  it  will  seem  that  I  am  at  variance 
with  Linnaeus,  whose  idea  I  have,  however,  only  developed 
and  stated  more  precisely.  In  fact,  the  immortal  author  of 
the  Sijstema  Naturoi  has  placed  his  Eomo  sapiens  amongst 
the  mammalia  in  the  class  of  primates,  and  has  made  him 
conorenous  with  the  gibbon.  This  is  because  Linnaeus  had 
recourse  to  the  System  in  order  to  establish  his  nomen- 
clature. To  classify  man  as  well  as  other  beings,  he  has 
made  an  arbitrary  choice  of  a  certain  number  of  character- 
istics, and  only  taken  those  into  consideration  which  were 
furnished  by  the  body. 

But  the  language  of  Linnaeus  is  very  different,  even  in  his 
remarks  relating  to  the  genus  Homo,  and  still  more  so  in 
the  kind  of  introduction  entitled  Imperiiim  Naturce.  He 
there  almost  places  man  in  opposition  with  all  beings,  and 
particularly  with  animals,  and  in  such  terms  as  necessarily 
to  suggest  the  idea  of  a  human  Jdngclom. 

The  reason  of  this  is  that  here  Linnaeus  no  longer  speaks 
of  physical  man,  but  of  man  as  a  whole.  Now,  thanks  to 
the  labours  of  Adanson,  Jussieu  and  Cuvier,  naturalists 
now  know  that  this  is  the  right  course  to  pursue  in  judging 
of  the  relations  which  exist  between  beings.  The  Natural 
Method  no  longer  allows  the  choice  of  such  or  such  a  gi'oup  of 
characteristics  ;  it  demands,  together  with  an  appreciation  of 
their  relative  value,  a  consideration  of  all.  It  is  on  this 
account  that  I  have  been  led  to  admit  the  existence  of  this 
human  kingdom,  Avhich  has  been  already  proposed  under 
several  appellations  by  some  eminent  men,  but  to  which  I 
believe  myself  to  have  given  a  more  precise  and  rigorous 
determination. 


The  Human  Kingdom. 


25 


The  table  given  above  must  then  be  completed  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  : — 


Human 
Kingdom 


PHENOMEXA. 


r  Phenomena  of  the  Keplerian  movement 
I  Physico-chemical  phenomena  .... 

<.  Vital  phenomena 

I  Phenomena  of  voluntary  movement     . 
(  Phenomena  of  morality  and  religion    . 


CAUSES, 


Gravitation 
Etherodynamy 
Life 

Animal  mind 
Human  mind 


Thus  in  the  human  kingdom  we  find  by  the  side  of  the 
phenomena  which  characterise  it  all  those  which  we  have  met 
with  in  the  inferior  kingdoms.  We  are  consequently  forced 
to  admit  that  all  the /orcfs  and  all  the  unknown  causes  to 
which  we  have  attributed  these  effects  are  acting  in  man. 
From  this  point  of  view  man  deserves  the  name  which  has 
sometimes  been  given  to  him  of  microcosm. 

We  have  seen  that  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  the  in- 
animate forces  perform  their  functions  under  the  control,  so 
to  speak,  of  Life,  which  afterwards,  in  the  animal,  showed 
incontestable  signs  of  its  subordination  to  the  animal  mind 
Life  now  appears  under  similar  conditions  with  regard  to  the 
human  mind.  In  the  most  characteristic  human  actions,  the 
intelligence  almost  always  plays  the  most  prt)minent  part 
from  the  executive  point  of  view  ;  but  it  is  manifestly  under 
the  direction  of  the  human  mind.  All  legislation  affects  to 
rest  upon  the  one  foundation  of  morality  and  of  justice, 
which  is  only  a  form  of  it ;  the  immediate  cause  of  the 
Crusades,  of  the  spread  of  the  Arabs,  and  the  conquests  of 
Islam,  was  religious  fervour.  The  true  legislator  and  the 
great  leader  are  indeed  necessarily  men  of  high  intelligence, 
but  IS  it  not  clear  that  in  the  cases  mentioned  the  intelli- 
gence has  been  placed  at  the  service  of  morality  or  of 
religion,  and  consequently  of  the  Unhioivn  Cause  to  which 
man  owes  these  faculties  ? 

But   however   preponderating   the  part   claimed   by  this 


26  The  Iluuiaji  Species. 

cause  in  acts  exclusively  liuuKiu  may  be,  it  lias  nothing  to  do 
■with  those  phenomena  which  have  their  origin  in  the  intel- 
ligence alone.  The  learned  mathematician  who  seeks  by  the 
aid  of  the  most  profound  abstractions  the  solution  of  some 
great  problem,  is  completely  without  the  moral  or  religious 
sphere  into  which,  on  the  contrary,  the  ignorant,  simple- 
minded  man  enters  when  he  struggles,  sutlers,  or  dies  for 
justice  or  for  his  faith. 

IX.  It  was  necessary  to  recall  all  the  facts  and  theories 
which  I  have  just  summed  up,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  com- 
prehension and  the  justification  of  the  method  which  alone 
can  guide  us  in  anthropological  studies. 

The  object  of  anthropology  is  the  study  of  man  as  a 
species.  It  abandons  the  matcvial  indicidual  to  phy- 
siology and  medicine;  the  intellectual  and  moral  indi- 
vidual to  philosophy  and  theology.  It  has,  therefore,  its 
own  special  field  of  study,  and  on  that  account  alone  its 
special  cpiestions,  whicii  often  could  not  be  solved  by  pro- 
cesses borrowed  from  cognate  sciences. 

In  fact,  in  some  cjuestions,  and  in  some  of  the  most  fuuda- 
niental  ones,  the  difiiculty  lies  in  the  interpretation  of  pheno- 
mena connected  with  those  which  are  characteristic  of  all 
living  beings.  For  tiie  very  reason  that  they  are  to  a  certain 
extent  obscure  in  man,  we  cannot  seek  for  an  explanation  of 
them  in  man,  since  he  becomes,  so  to  speak,  the  \mknown 
cjuantity  of  the  problem.  An  endeavour  to  solve  the  problem 
by  the  study  of  man,  who  is  the  object  of  it,  would  be  equi- 
valent to  a  mathematician  representing  the  value  of  x  in 
terms  of  j-  itself. 

How  docs  the  uiathematician  proceed  ?  He  seeks  in  the 
data  of  the  problem  for  a  certain  number  of  hnoivii  quan- 
tities equivalent  to  the  niiknown  quanlitij,  and  by  means 
of  tiicHC  (juantitics  he  determines  the  value  of  r. 

The  anthropologist  must  act  in  the  sanie  manner.  But 
where  must  he  seek  for  the  known  (piantities  which  will  en- 
able him  to  state  the  eipiation  i 

The  answer  to  this  question  will  be  fouml  in  wli.it  we  have 


Anthropological  Mel  hod.  27 

said  above,  and  in  tlic  table  of  kingdoms.  Man,  altliough  he 
lias  liis  special  and  exclusively  human  phenomena,  is  above 
all  an  organiscil  and  living  being.  From  thi.s  point  of 
view  he  is  the  scat  of  phenomena  common  to  animals  and 
plants  ;  he  is  subjected  to  tlie  same  laws.  In  his  physical 
organisation  he  is  nothing  more  than  an  animal,  somewhat 
superior  in  certain  respects  to  the  most  highly  developed 
species,  but  inferior  in  others.  From  this  point  of  view  he 
presentij  organic  and  physiological  phenomena  identical  with 
those  of  animals  in  general,  and  of  mammalia  in  particular; 
and  the  laws  which  govern  these  phenomena  are  the  same 
in  both  casc3. 

Now  plants  and  animals  have  been  studied  for  a  much 
longer  period  than  man,  and  from  an  exclusively  scientific 
point  of  view,  without  any  trace  of  the  prejudice  and  party 
feeling  which  often  interferes  with  the  study  of  man.  With- 
out having  penetrated  very  deeply  into  all  the  secrets  of  vege- 
table and  animal  life,  science  has  acquired  a  certain  number 
of  fixed  and  indisputable  results  which  constitute  a  founda- 
tion of  positive  knowledge,  and  a  safe  starting  point.  It  is 
there  that  the  anthropologist  must  seek  the  known  quan- 
tidt's  of  which  he  may  stand  in  need. 

Whenever  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the  nature  or  significa- 
tion of  a  phenomenon  observed  in  man,  the  corresponding 
phenomena  must  be  examined  in  animals,  and  even  in  plants  ; 
they  must  be  compared  with  what  takes  place  in  ourselves, 
and  the  results  of  this  comparison  accepted  as  they  are  exhi- 
bited. What  is  recognised  as  being  true  for  other  organised 
beings  cannot  but  be  true  for  man. 

This  method  is  incontestably  scientific.  It  is  similar  to 
that  of  modern  physiologists,  who,  since  they  are  unable  to 
experiment  upon  man,  experiment  upon  animals,  and  form 
thtir  conclusions  upon  the  former  from  the  latter.  But  the 
physiologist  devotes  his  attention  to  the  individual  only, 
and,  therefore,  examines  little  more  than  those  groups  which 
in  their  organisation  approach  most  nearly  to  the  being  whoso 
history  he  wishes  to  explain.    The  anthropologist  on  the  con- 


28  TJic  Ilitman  Species. 

trary  studies  the  fqKcies.  The  questions  with  wliich  he  lia,s 
to  deal  are  niucli  more  general,  so  he  is  forced  to  direct  his 
attention  to  phints  as  well  as  to  animals. 

This  method  is  accompanied  by  its  criterion  ;  it  allows  the 
control  of  tlie  various  answers  which  are  often  made  to  one 
question.  The  means  of  estimation  are  simple  and  easily 
applied. 

In  anthropology,  every  solution  to  l)c  sound,  that  is  to 
say,  true,  should  refer  man  in  everything  which  is  not  exclu- 
sively human  to  the  general  recognised  laws  for  other  organ- 
ised and  living  beings. 

Every  solution  which  makes  or  tends  to  make,  man  an  ex- 
ception, by  representing  liim  as  free  from  those  laws  which 
govern  other  organised  and  living  beings,  is  unsound  and 
false. 

Again,  when  we  reason  and  form  our  conclusions  in  this 
manner,  we  remain  faithful  to  the  mathematical  method. 
To  be  received  as  true,  a  solution  of  a  given  problem  must 
agree  with  admitted  axioms,  with  truths  previously  proved. 
Every  hypothesis  which  leads  to  results  at  variance  with 
these  axioms  or  these  truths,  is,  on  that  account  alone,  de- 
clared false.  In  anthropology,  tlic  axiom  or  the  truth  which 
serves  as  a  criterion  is  the  fundamental,  physical,  and  physio- 
logical identity  of  man  with  other  living  beings,  with  animals, 
with  mammalia.  All  hvpotheses  at  variance  with  this  truth 
should  be  rejected. 

Such  are  the  ab.solute  rules  which  have  always  acted  as 
my  guide  in  anthropological  studies.  I  do  not  pretend  to 
liave  invented  them.  1  have  scarcely  done  more  than  for- 
mulate what  has  been  more  or  less  explicitly  admitted  by 
Linna-us,  Huffon,  l..amarck,  IJlumenbach,  Cuvier,  the  two 
CJeoffroy  St,  Hilaire,  J.  Miiller,  IJumboldt,  etc.  But,  on 
the  one  hand,  my  illustri(»us  predeces.sors  have  seldom 
treated  the  subject  with  sufticient  precision,  and  have 
too  often  r)mitted  t«)  give  the  reasons  for  their  decisions. 
On  the  other  hand  these  principles  have  been,  and  are 
daily  forgotten    by  men   who,   in  other  respects,  enjoy  with 


Anthropological  Method.  29 

justice  the  title  of  great  authorities.  As  I  shall  be  com- 
pelled to  (lisjij^'rec  with  them,  I  thought  it  necessary  to 
show  clearly  the  general  ideas  which  serve  as  a  foundation 
for  my  own  scientific  convictions.  The  reader  will  thus  be 
able  to  appreciate  and  discern  the  causes  of  this  difference 
of  opinion. 


CHAPTER    II. 

GENERAL   ANTHUOPOLOGICAL  DOCTRINES;  MONOGENISM 
AND    POLYGENISM. 

I.  As  soon  as  we  have  determined  the  phice  which  shouhl 
be  assigned  to  man  in  the  great  order  of  tlie  universe,  the 
first  question  Avhich  rises  is,  whether  there  is  one  human 
species,  or  several. 

It  is  well  known  that  this  question  has  caused  a  division 
amongst  anthropohigists.  The  Pobjfjcnists  regard  the  diifer- 
cnces  of  lieight,  features,  and  colour,  which  distinguish  the 
inhabitants  of  different  countries  of  the  globe,  as  funda- 
mental ;  the  MonofjenistH  consider  these  ditTcrences  merely 
as  the  result  of  accidental  conditions,  which  have  modified, 
in  various  degrees,  a  primitive  type.  The  former- hold  that 
there  are  several  human  apccka  perfectly  independent  of 
each  other  ;  the  latter  that  there  is  hut  one  species  of  man 
which  is  dividetl  into  several  races,  all  of  which  arc  derived 
from  a  common  stock. 

Ifowcver  slight  may  be  our  familiarity  with  the  language 
of  zoology  and  botany  or  their  applications,  it  is  evident  that 
the  (|iie.stion  before  us  is  a  ])urely  scientific  one,  and  entirely 
witiiin  the  }»rovincc  of  the  natural  sciences.  Unfortunately 
the  di.scussion  has  by  no  means  been  confined  to  this 
groun<l. 

A  dogma  supported  by  the  authority  of  the  Book  wliich 
is  liehl  in  almost  e(pial  respect  l>y  (Miristian.s,  Jews  and 
Mussulmans,  has  long  referred  the  origin  of  all  men  without 
opposition  to  a  single  father  and  mother.  Nevertheless,  the 
first  blow  aimed  at  this  ancient  belief  was  founded  upon 
the  some  book.      In    Hi'*"'   l-i   Peyri-re,  a  Protestant  gentle- 


I^Tonogcnisin  and  Polygcnism.  31 

man  in  CondiT.s  army,  interpreting  to  the  letter  the  two 
narratives  of  the  creation  contained  in  the  Bible  as  well  as 
various  particulars  in  the  history  of  Adam  and  of  the 
Jewish  nation,  attempted  to  prove  that  the  latter  alone 
were  descended  from  Adam  and  Eve ;  that  they  had  been 
preceded  by  other  men  who  had  been  created  at  the  same 
time  as  the  animals  in  all  parts  of  the  habitable  globe ;  that 
tlic  descendants  of  these  Freadamites  were  identical  with 
the  Gentiles,  who  were  always  so  carefully  distinguished 
from  the  Jews.  Thus  we  see  that  polygcnism  generally 
reganled  as  the  result  of  Free  Tliowjld  was  biblical  and 
dogmatic  in  origin. 

La  Peyrt-re  attacked  the  Adamic  dogma  in  the  name  of 
the  respect  due  to  the  text  of  a  sacred  Book.  The  philo- 
sophers of  the  eighteenth  century  spoke  in  the  name  of 
Science  and  Reason.  It  is  to  them  that  the  school  of 
Pulygeuists  in  reality  owe  their  origin.  But  it  is  easy  to 
see  that  the  greater  number  of  them  were  only  guided  in 
their  writings  by  a  controversial  spirit,  their  chief  aim  was 
the  destructiun  of  a  dogma.  Unfortunately,  the  same  pre- 
possession appears  in  too  many  works  published  in  our 
own  day.  On  the  other  hand  certain  monogonists  arc 
guilty  of  seeking  in  religious  doctrines  arguments  in  favour 
of  their  theory,  and  anathematising  their  adversaries  in  the 
name  of  dogma. 

Social  and  political  prejudices  in  addition  to  dogmatic 
and  anti-dogmatic  prejudices  have  helped  to  make  still 
more  okscure  a  question  already  very  difficult  in  itself.  In 
the  United  States  in  particular  the  advocates  of  slavery  and 
its  opponents  have  often  fought  upon  this  ground.  Further 
still  in  LSH  Mr.  Calhoun,  Minister  of  Foreign  AtTairs,  when 
replying  to  the  representations  made  to  him  by  France  and 
England  on  the  subject  of  slavery,  did  not  hesitate  to 
defend  the  institutions  of  his  country  by  urging  the  radical 
differences,  which,  according  to  him,  separated  the  Negro 
from  th»!  White  man. 

Bcsidrs    lliosc    polygenists    who    are    intlucnced    by    pre- 


32  TJtc  Human  Species. 

judices  almost  or  entirely  unscientific,  there  are  sincere 
and  disinterested  men  of  science  >vho  believe  in  the  multi- 
plicity of  human  origins.  Foremost  among  the  latter  are 
medical  men,  who  arc  accustomed  to  the  study  of  the 
individual  and  >Yho  only  possess  a  slight  familiarity  with 
the  study  of  the  sjyecies.  Then  again  there  are  palaeon- 
tologists, who  from  the  nature  of  their  work  are  compelled 
only  to  take  into  account  morphological  resemblances  and 
differences,  without  even  t\irning  their  attention  to  facts  of 
reproduction  or  of  Jlliation.  Finally,  there  are  entomolo- 
gists, conchologists,  etc.,  who,  exclusively  interested  in  the 
distinction  of  innumerable  species  by  purely  external  charac- 
ters, are  entirely  ignorant  of  physiological  phenomena,  and 
iud'^e  livinrr  beinfrs  as  thcv  would  fossils. 

On  the  other  hand,  monogcnism  reckons  among  its 
partisans  nearly  all  tho.se  naturalists  who  have  turned  their 
attention  to  the  phenomena  of  life,  and  among  them  some 
of  the  most  illu.strious.  In  spite  of  the  difference  of  their 
doctrines,  liuffon  and  Linnieus,  Cuvier  and  Lamarck,  Blain- 
ville  and  the  two  Geotfroys,  Miiller  the  physiologist  and 
Humboldt  agree  upon  this  point.  Apart  from  any  influence 
which  the  name  of  the.se  great  men  might  exercise,  it  is 
clear  that  I  share  thfir  opinion.  I  have  on  diflcrent  occa- 
sions explained  the  purely  scientific  reasons  for  my  con- 
victions. I  shall  now  endeavour  to  sum  them  up  in  as  few 
words  as  possible. 

II.  Let  us  first  establish  the  importance  of  the  ([uestion. 
It  escapes  many  minds  and  I  have  lieard  a  doubt  expre.s.sed 
tipon  it  by  men  who  havo  enthusiastically  followed  anthro- 
pological studies.     It  is,  however,  ca.siiy  j)rovod. 

If  the  human  grotjps  liave  appeared  with  iill  their  dis- 
tinctive characters  in  the  i.solated  condition,  and  in  the 
various  localities  where  geography  teaches  us  to  seek 
thtm  ;  if  we  can  trace  them  up  to  stocks  originally  distinct, 
thus  constituting  so  many  niwcIhI  sjn'rirs,  then  the  study  of 
them  is  one  of  the  most  simple,  presenting  no  more  diffi- 
culty   than    that   of    aniiii.il    or    vegetable   species.      There 


I^fonogcnism  and  Polygcnism.  33 

would  be  nothing  singular  in  the  diversity  of  the  groups. 
It  would  be  sufficient  to  examine  and  describe  them  one 
after  the  other,  merely  determining  the  degree  of  offiniiu 
W'tween  them.  At  most  we  should  have  to  fix  their  limits 
ami  to  discover  the  influence  which  groups  geographically 
brought  in  contact  had  been  able  to  exercise  upon  each 
other. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  these  groups  can  be  traced  to  one 
common  primitive  stock,  if  there  is  hxd  one  single  species  of 
man,  the  ditferenccs,  sometimes  so  striking,  which  separate 
the  groups,  constitute  a  problem  similar  to  that  of  our 
animal  and  vegetable  races.  Further,  man  is  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  globe,  and  we  must  account  for  this  dispersion  ; 
we  must  explain  how  the  same  species  has  been  able  to 
accommodate  itself  to  such  opposite  conditions  of  existence 
as  those  to  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  pole  and  the 
ecjuator  are  subject.  And  lastly,  the  simple  afftniln  of 
naturalists  is  changed  into  consanguinity;  and  the  problems 
ofJiHation  are  added  to  those  of  variation,  migration,  and 
acclimatisadvn. 

It  is  clear  that,  independently  of  every  religious,  philo- 
sophical, or  social  consideration,  this  science  will  dififer 
entirely  in  character  as  we  consider  it  from  a  polygcnistic 
point  of  view,  or  according  to  theories  of  monogenism. 

III.  If  the  former  of  these  doctrines  claims  such  a  large 
inindxir  of  adherents,  the  reason  may  fur  the  most  part  be 
found  in  the  causes  mentioned  above.  But  its  seductive 
simplicity  and  the  facility  which  it  seems  to  lend  to  the 
interpretation  of  facts  also  stand  for  a  great  deal.  Unfor- 
tunately these  advantages  are  only  apparent.  Polygenism 
conceals  or  denies  difficulties  ;  it  does  not  suppress  them. 
They  arc  suddenly  revealed,  like  submarine  rocks,  to  anyone 
who  tries,  however  little,  to  go  to  the  root  of  the  matter. 

The  case  is  the  same  with  this  doctrine  as  with  the  Hi/stems 
of  classification  formerly  employed  in  botany  and  zoology 
which  resteil  upon  a  small  number  of  arbitrary  data.  They 
Will'  uii.lMiilitiiiJy  very  convenient,  but  po-sises-sed  the  serious 


34  TJic  Human  Species. 

fault  of  being  conducive  to  most  erroneous  opinions  from  a 
destruction  of  true  relations  and  an  imposition  of  false 
connections. 

Monogenism  acts  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Xatiwal 
Method  The  zoologist  and  the  botanist  are  by  this  method 
brought  face  to  face  with  each  problem  which  is  put  before 
them  under  every  aspect  It  often  displays  the  insufficiency 
of  actual  knowledge,  but  it  is  the  only  means  of  destroying 
illusions,  and  of  preventing  a  belief  in  false  explanations. 

It  is  the  same  with  Monogenism.  It  also  brings  the 
anthropologist  face  to  face  with  reality,  forces  him  to  inves- 
tigate every  question,  shows  him  the  whole  extent  of  each, 
and  often  compels  him  to  confess  his  inability  to  solve  them. 
But  by  this  very  means  it  protects  him  against  error,  pro- 
voking him  to  fresh  investigation,  and  from  time  to  time 
rewards  him  with  some  great  progress  which  remains  an 
acquisition  for  ever. 

I  shall  return  to  these  considerations,  the  truth  of  which 
will  be  better  understood  when  the  principal  general  ques- 
tions of  anthropoh^gy  have  been  reviewed.  Henceforward  I 
shall  attempt  to  justify  as  briefly  as  possible  the  preceding 
criticisms  and  eulogies. 


niAPTEll    III. 

SPECIES   AND    RACE    IN   THE    NATURAL   SCIENCES. 

I.  The  question  of  the  unity  or  nuiltiplicity  of  the  human 
species  may  be  stated  in  the  foUowing  terms :  are  the 
tlitferences  which  distinguish  tlie  human  groups  characteristic 
of  ftpccies  or  of  race  ? 

It  is  evident  that  the  question  depends  entirely  upon  the 
two  words  species  and  race.  It  is  then  absolutely  necessary 
to  determine  as  accurately  as  possible  the  sense  of  each,  and 
yet  there  are  anthropologists,  such  as  Knox,  for  instance,  who 
declare  that  any  discussion  or  investigation  in  connection 
with  this  subject  is  idle.  There  are  others,  like  Dr.  Nott, 
who  would  suppress  the  race  and  only  establish  various 
categories  of  species.  In  order  to  support  their  doctrines 
these  authors  ignore  the  work  which  has  been  carried  on  for 
neai-ly  two  centuries  by  the  most  illustrious  naturalists,  and 
tjjc  innumerable  observations  and  experiments  made  by  a 
vast  number  of  eminent  men  upon  plants  and  animals. 

In  fact  the  theory  of  species  and  race  has  not  been  formed 
cl  priori,  as  it  has  been  too  often  falsely  asserted,  but  has 
been  gradually  acquired,  and  in  a  strictly  scientific  manner. 

II.  The  word  Species  is  one  which  exists  in  all  languages 
which  possess  abstract  terms.  It  represents,  therefore,  a 
general  common  idea.  The  idea  is,  in  the  first  place,  that  of 
a  great  outward  resemblance',  but  even  in  ordinary  language 
that  is  not  all.  The  idea  of  jlHation  is  connected,  even  in 
the  most  uncultivated  miud.s,  with  that  of  resemblance.  No 
peasant  would  hesitate  to  regard  the  children  of  the  same 
parents  a.H  belonging  to  the  same  species  whatever  real  or 
apparent  diflerences  miglit  distinguish  them. 


36  The  Human  Species. 

Science  lias  in  reality  done  nothing  more  than  define  the 
idea  of  which  the  public  had  merely  a  vague  consciousness, 
and  it  was  not  till  very  lately,  and  after  a  very  curious 
oscillation,  that  she  succeeded  in  doing  so.  In  IGSO,  Jean 
Ray,  in  his  Historia  Plantarum,  considered  that  those 
])]ants  which  had  a  common  origin  and  could  be  reproduced 
by  seed  belonged  to  the  same  species,  whatever  their 
apparent  differences  might  be.  He  only  took  filiation  into 
accotint.  Tournefort,  on  the  contrary,  who  in  1700  was  the 
first  to  make  a  clear  statement  of  the  question,  termed  the 
collection  of  plants  a  species  which  were  distinguished  by 
some  particular  character.     He  relied  only  on  resemblance. 

Hay  and  Tournefort  have  had  from  time  to  time  a  few 
imitators,  who,  in  their  definition  of  species,  have  clung  to 
one  of  the  two  ideas.  But  the  immen.ie  majority  of  zoolo- 
gi.sts  have  been  aware  of  the  injpossibility  of  separating 
them.  To  convince  ourselves  of  this  fact  it  is  only  necessary 
to  read  the  definitions  which  they  have  given.  Each  one  of 
them,  from  Buffon  and  Cuvier  to  MM.  Chevreul  and  C.  Vogt 
ha.s,  so  to  sj)eak,  proposed  his  own.  Now,  however  they  njay 
differ  in  other  re.'<pects,  they  all  agree  in  this.  The  terms  of 
the  definitions  var}',  each  endeavours  to  represent  in  the  best 
manner  ])ossible  the  complex  idea  of  s])eeies ;  some  extend 
it  still  further,  and  connect  with  it  the  ideas  of  cycle  and 
variation  :  but  in  all  the  fundamental  idea  is  the  same. 

In  a  ca.se  of  such  difticulty  as  that  of  finding  a  good  defini- 
tion for  a  combination  of  ideas,  the  latest  comer  always 
hopes  to  improve  upon  liis  predecessors.  For  this  reason  I 
have  also  given  my  formula:  "Species  is  a  collection  of 
individuals  more  or  less  resend)ling  each  other,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  having  descended  from  a  single  primitive  pair 
bv  an  unlntcnnptcd  and  natural  succession  of  families." 

In  this  delinitioii,  as  also  in  that  of  some  of  my  colleagues, 
among  others  of  M.  Clicvreul,  the  idea  of  resemblance  is 
made  of  less  importance  and  suljoidinate  to. that  of  filiation. 
The  fact  i.s  that  there  never  is  an  identity  of  characters 
between    one    individual    and    another.     Butting   aside    the 


Species  and  Race  in  the  Nalitral  Sciences.     37 

variatious  resulting  from  age  and  sex,  it  is  at  once  evident 
that  all  representatives  of  the  same  specific  type  differ  in 
Konie  p<jints.  Although  tliese  diflerences  are  very  slight, 
they  constitute  individual  traits,  sluidea  as  Isidore  Geoffroy 
said,  which  enable  us  to  distinguish  between  two  of  the  same 
species. 

But  the  ditferences  arc  not  confined  within  these  limits. 
The  sjjecific  types  are  variable,  that  is  to  say,  every  kind  of 
j»hysical  character  is  modified  in  their  derivatives  and,  under 
the  inlluence  of  certain  conditions,  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
make  it  often  very  ditficult  to  recognise  their  unity  of  origin. 
This,  again,  is  a  fact  upon  which  all  naturalists  agree. 
Blainville  even,  who,  defined  species  as  "the  individual 
repeated  and  continueil  through  time  and  space,"  distinctly 
recognised  this  variability  ;  for  the  individual  is  perpetually 
undergoing  modification,  and  does  not  retain  its  similarity 
during  the  various  stages  of  life.  He  admitted,  moreover, 
the  existence  of  distinct  races. 

The  variability  of  species  has  also  been  the  subject  of 
animated  discussion  among  naturalists.  The  memorable 
contention  which  arose  upon  this  subject  between  Cuvier 
and  Geoffroy  is  not  yet  forgotten,  a  struggle  considered  by 
Goethe  as  more  important  than  the  gravest  political  events. 
In  the  present  day  a  school  to  which  many  of  the  most 
iUustrious  names  in  England,  Germany  and  elsewhere  belong, 
lias  taken  up,  with  certain  modifications,  the  ideas  of  Lamarck 
and  Geoffroy ;  it  gives  support  to  them  from  retaining  the 
term  variability  of  species. 

There  is  a  grave  confusion  of  words  in  this  formula. 
I^nmarck,  GeoflVoy,  Darwin  and  his  school,  consider  the 
species  not  only  as  variable  but  as  transmutable.  The 
specific  types  are  not  merely  modified,  they  arc  replaced  by 
new  typt^s.  Variation  is  in  their  estimation  only  a  phase 
of  the  very  different  phenomena  of  transmutation. 

I  shall  discuss  these  theories  presently.  I  .shall  now  con- 
fine myself  to  the  remark  that  true  variability,  admitted 
even  by  the  defenders  of  dojmatic  invariability,  by  Blain- 


38  The  Ilunian  Species. 

villc,  for  example,  a  variability  >Yliicli  I  fully  accept,  luxs 
notliinj,^  in  cuimuon  -svith  the  iranftmniahility  of  Lamarck, 
GeoflVoy  and  Darwin,  Let  us  briefly  determine  the  limits 
of  this  variability. 

IIL  When  an  individual  trait  is  exaggerated  and  passes 
a  limit  always  very  loosely  defined,  it  constitutes  an  excep- 
tional character  which  clearly  distinguishes  the  individual 
attccted  by  it  from  all  those  most  nearly  resembling  it.  This 
individual  constitutes  a  Vai^ty. 

The  same  term  must  be  applied  to  all  those  individuals, 
■which,  like  certain  plants  reproduced  by  slips,  grafts,  or 
shoots,  derive  their  origin  from  the  first  exceptional  in- 
dividual, -without  having  the  power  of  transmitting  their 
distinctive  characters  by  means  of  normal  generation.  I 
borrow  fn.m  M.  Chevreul  a  curious  example  of  thescmuUipU 
varieties.  In  ISO.T  or  LS05,  M.  Desccmet  discovered  in  his 
garden  at  Saint  ])enis,  in  the  midst  of  a  bod  of  acacias 
{liobinia  p8eiulo-acacia)  an  individual  without  thorns  which 
he  describes  under  the  epithet  sprctabilis.  It  is  to  tho 
multiplicatiun  of  this  individual  by  the  art  of  tho  gardener 
that  all  the  ihonilesa  acacias,  now  distributed  over  every 
part  of  tho  globe,  owe  their  origin.  Now  these  individuals 
produce  seeds,  but  if  the  seeds  are  sown  they  only  yield 
l/ioiiiy  acacias.  The  acacia  f<^pectahiHs  h;us  remained  a 
Varicti/. 

The  latter  may  tin  11  br  (1«  liiiLcl  as: — "An  individual  or 
a  number  of  individuals  belonging  to  the  same  sexual 
genenUion,  which  is  distinguished  from  the  other  repre- 
Kentatives  of  the  same  species  by  one  or  several  exceptional 
characters." 

It  will  readily  be  seen  how  great  the  nundjer  of  varieties 
ill  one  species  may  be.  There  is,  in  fact,  scarcely  any  either 
external  or  internal  part  of  an  animal  or  plant,  which  cannot 
1x5  cxaggirated,  diminished  or  modified  in  a  thousand  ways, 
and  ejich  of  these  exaggerations,  diminutionR  or  modifications 
will  characterise!  a  fresh  variety,  with  thf;  one  condition  of  its 
being  Kufticieiitly  marked. 


Species  and  Race  in  the  Natural  Sciences.     39 

IV.  When  the  characters  peculiar  to  a  variety  become 
hereditary,  that  is  to  say,  when  they  are  transmitted  from 
generations  to  the  descendants  of  the  first  modified  in- 
dividual, a  race  i§  formed.  For  example,  if  a  tliornlcss 
acacia  ever  reproduced  by  seed,  trees  resembling  itself  and 
enjoying  the  same  power,  then  the  Acacia  spectabilis  would 
cease  to  be  a  simple  variety,  and  would  have  become  a  race. 

The  race,  then,  will  consist  of: — "A  number  of  individuals 
resembling  each  other,  belonging  to  one  species,  having 
nivived  and  transmitting,  })y  means  of  sexual  generation, 
the  characters  of  a  primitive  variet}'. 

Thus  the  Species  is  the  point  of  departure ;  the  variety 
appears  amongst  the  iiuUviJiads  of  which  it  is  composed, 
and,  when  the  characters  of  this  variety  become  hereditary,  a 
vacs  is  formed. 

Such  are  the  relatiuns  which,  according  to  all  naturalists 
"  from  Cuvier  to  Lamarck  himself,"  as  Isidore  Geotfroy  said, 
exist  between  these  three  terms.  We  have  here  a  funda- 
mental idea  which  we  slundd  never  lose  sight  of  in  the  study 
of  the  questions  with  which  we  arc  engaged.  From  neglect 
of  it  men  of  the  highest  distinction  have  failed  to  understand 
most  significant  facts. 

We  see  that  the  idea  of  resemblance,  which  is  much 
curtailed  in  the  species,  reassumes  in  the  race  an  importance 
equal  to  that  o(  filiation. 

Wc  see  also  that  the  number  of  races  which  spring  directly 
from  one  species  may  be  ccpial  to  the  number  of  varieties  of 
the  same  species,  and  con.sequently  very  considerable.  But 
this  number  has  a  tendency  to  increase  .still  further  to  an 
indefinite  extent.  In  fact,  each  of  these  j)rimary  races  is 
su.sceptible  of  fresh  modificatictns,  which  may  either  extend 
no  further  than  one  individual,  or  become  transmis.sible  by 
means  of  generation.  Thus  secondary  and  tertiary  varieties 
i>r  racciT  come  into  existence.  Our  plants  and  domestic 
animals  furnish  innumerable  examples  of  these  facts. 

V.  By  reiuson  of  races  originating  in  this  manner  from  one 
nnotlur,   and    from    their    iniiltiplicatien,   they  may  assume 


40  The  Iliinian  Species. 

ilitVcroutial  cliaractors  which  become  more  and  more  decided. 
But  Ijowever  min\erous  thry  may  be,  and  whatever  ditier- 
ences  there  may  be  between  tliem,  and  however  far  they  may 
seem  to  be  removed  from  the  primitive  t}'pe,  tliey  neverthe- 
less, still  form  part  of  the  species  from  which  the  primitive 
races  derived  their  origin. 

On  the  other  hand,  every  species  comprises,  independently 
of  the  individuals  which  have  preserved  their  primitive 
characters,  all  those  which  compose  the  primary,  secondary 
and  tertiary,  etc.,  races,  derived  from  the  fundamental  type. 

In  other  words  the  specks  is  the  unit  and  the  races  ava 
the  fniciions  of  this  unit.  Or  again,  the  species  is  the 
trunk  of  the  tree,  of  which  the  several  series  of  races  repre- 
sent the  jnincipal  and  lesser  branches  and  the  twigs.  The 
general  unity  and  relative  independence  of  the  trunk  and 
the  branches  of  the  tree  represent  in  an  obvious  manner  the 
connections  existing  between  the  species  and  its  races. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

NATURE  OF   VARIATIONS   IN  ANIMAL  AND   VEGETABLE 
RACES  ;    ArPLICATION   TO  MAN. 

I.  The  moaning  of  the  question  stated  above  is  now  intel- 
lii(il)lo.  We  have  to  discover  whether  the  human  groups, 
which  we  know  to  be  distinguished  by  characters  which  are 
often  very  marked,  arc  fractions  of  a  single  unit,  branches  of 
the  same  tree,  or  so  many  units  of  different  vahie,  so  many 
trees  of  various  nature. 

Historical  documents  are  absolutely  incapable  of  solving 
tliis  problem.  On  the  other  hand,  man  being  tlic  subject 
of  the  problem,  it  is  evi<lent  that  the  solution  must  be  sought 
elsewhere. 

Where  then  must  we  turn  in  order  to  obtain  a  definite 
answer  to  this  question  which  concerns  us  so  closely  ? 
Clearly  to  naturalists  and  to  naturalists  alone.  The  Species 
and  tiic  Race  have,  for  more  than  two  centuries,  been  the 
subject  of  their  studies  ;  they  have  amassed  observations, 
multiplied  experiments.  They  have,  in  their  studies,  been 
guided  by  a  scientific  spirit  alone,  and  from  being  placed 
b«yond  the  reach  of  controversy,  have  preserved  all  their 
freedom  of  judgment.  The  results  thus  acquired,  deserve 
the  gieatest  confiilence,  and  supply  reliable  data  for  the 
application  of  our  anthropological  method. 

Anyone  really  desirous  of  ft)rming  an  opinion  upon  the 
unity  or  multiplicity  of  the  human  species,  should  therefore 
discover  what  are  the  facts  and  ijhenomena  which  charac- 
terise race  and  species  in  plants  and  animals  ;  then  turn  to 
man  and  compare  the  facts  and  phenomena  there  presented 
will)  those  which  botanists  and  zoologists  have  observed  in 


42  7 he  Human  Species. 

the  otlicr  kingtloms.  If  tlio  facts  ami  plionomcna  wliicli 
distinguish  the  human  groups  are  those  which,  in  otlier 
organised  antl  living  beings  differentiate  species,  he  will 
then  legitimately  infer  the  nuiltii)licity  of  human  species  ;  if, 
however,  these  phenonuna  and  facts  arc  characteristic  of 
race  in  the  two  inferior  kingdoms,  he  must  conclude  in 
favour  of  specific  unity. 

It  is  the  pui^suance  of  tliis  course  wliich  has  convinced  me 
of  monojrenism,  and  I  am  certain  the  result  will  be  the  same 
with  anyone  who  will  follow  it. 

II.  The  idea  of  species  rests,  as  we  have  seen,  upon  the 
two  distinct  ideas  of  resemblance  andjiliation.  Let  us  first 
turn  our  attention  to  the  former  as  being  the  greater 
stumbling-block  of  the  two.  No  one  would  licsitate  to 
consider  two  individuals  resembling  each  other  very  closely 
as  belonging  to  the  same  species  ;  if,  liowever,  they  present 
somewhat  marked  ditVen-nces,  and  the  necessary  information 
is  wanting,  we  hesitate  to  give  our  decision  in  the  negative. 
The  mind  readily  accepts  the  latter  conclusion  when  man  is 
the  object  of  diseiission.  A  continual,  though  unconscious 
study,  has  endowed  us  with  a  perception  which  appreciates, 
in  those  around  us,  the  most  delicate  gradations  in  features, 
the  colour  of  the  skin,  and  in  the  appearance  of  the  hair. 
Now  this  delicacy  of  appreciation  ha.s,  in  the  present  instance, 
a  .serious  incouvenience.  It  inevitably  conduces  to  the  exag- 
geration of  difl'erences  existing  between  ditrerent  groups,  and 
by  this  very  means  kails  us  to  regard  tliem  as  so  many 
species. 

For  this  decisiou  to  have  a  real  \alue,  however,  it  should 
be  shown  Wforehand  that  the  variations  iKtween  on6  human 
group  aii<l  another,  are  greater  than  tlutse  which  have  been 
established  iK-tween  grtmps  of  animals  an<l  plants,  which  arc 
positively  known  to  be  only  rarcn  of  one  Hiwcics. 

Now  this  is  not  the  ca.sc.  However  slight  an  attempt  we 
may  iiave  made  to  Ix'come  ac<|uainted  with  the  nature  and 
the  extent  of  variations,  wo  shall  very  soon  see  that  ijj  animal 
and  vegetable  races  tlu-y  attain  limits,  which  are  never  over- 


Nature  of  J  'an'n/ious  in  Ixaccs.  43 

stepped,  and  but  laivly  attained,  \ty  tlio  difTerenccs  between 
litiiuan  fjruups. 

III.  I  sliall  not  insist  at  any  IcJigth  ujion  the  morpho- 
logical and  anatomical  changes  of  )»lants.  It  will  be  sufficient 
to  call  to  mind  how  numerous  and  dilTcrent  are  those  varieties 
of  vegetables,  flowei-s,  fruit-trees,  and  ornamental  shrubs,  the 
jiiunbor  of  which  is  always  on  the  increase.  Amongst  the 
latter,  the  variety,  it  is  true,  very  rarely  attains  to  the  condi- 
tion of  a  race,  drafting,  propagation  by  layers,  etc.,  make 
it  ixx<vsible  to  midtiply  tliem  rapidly  and  with  certaint}'^,  as 
in  the  ca.se  of  the  thornlcss  acacia,  and  gardeners  have  always 
been  in  the  habit  of  resorting  to  this  method.  Nevertheless, 
even  among  fruit  trees,  a  few  of  these  varieties  have  become 
fi.vcd,  and  can  be  reproduced  by  .seed.  The  plum,  the  peach, 
and  the  vine,  may  be  rpioted  as  examples.  As  to  annuals, 
garden  vegitables  espcciallv,  they  can  only  1)0  preserved  and 
multiplied  by  this  method.  Hero  we  only  find  races,  and  it 
is  well  to  know  how  numerous  and  varied  they  are.  The 
cabbage  alone  (lirass-ica  olevacca)  numbers  forty-seven  prin- 
cipal races,  each  of  which  is  sub-divided  into  a  number  of 
secondary  and  tertiary  races.  Now  it  is  quite  useless  to  insist 
upon  the  distance  which  separat<'S  the  headed  cabbage,  of 
which  sauerkraut  is  made,  from  the  turnip-cabbage,  of  which 
the  root  is  eaten,  and  from  the  cauliflower  or  the  brocoli. 

It  is  very  evident  that  this  cannot  be  due  to  the  mere 
alteration  of  primitive  forms.  The  elements  of  the  organism 
undergo  mollification,  and  are  differently  as.sociated  and 
combined  according  to  the  race.  But  these  elements  them- 
Kclves  often  undergo  most  fundamental  disturbance.  CerUiin 
acids  are  diminished  or  disappear,  and  are  replaced  by  sugar, 
a  sweet  taste  and  perfume,  which  develop  and  characteri.se 
ccitain  races  of  vegetables  and  fruits,  and  show  that  the 
vital  lt)rces  of  these  plants  have  been  subjected  to  very 
substantial  moditications  faithfully  transmitted  from  genera- 
tion to  generation. 

The  objection  will  piihaps  be  ma<le  that  there  is  too  little 
rcsemVdance  betwien  ve^retable  and  animal  orcranisms  for  the 


44  ^/'^'  Human  Species, 

above  comparison  of  anatomical  facts  to  be  really  useful.  It 
is  different  in. physiological  phenomena. 

Vital  activity  in  our  cultivated  plants  sometimes  presents 
very  remarkable  differences  in  ditVcrent  races.  In  our  several 
races  of  corn,  the  raj)idity  of  development  varies  from  simjjle 
to  triple.  In  temperate  climates  barley  requires  five  months 
to  germinate,  grow  and  ripen.  In  Finland  and  Lapland  it 
only  takes  two  months  to  accomplish  the  .same  phases  of 
growth.  And,  finally,  it  is  well  known  that  in  our  kitchen 
and  fruit  gardens  we  find  races  anil  varieties,  some  of  which 
are  fa.st  and  some  slow  growers. 

The  energy  of  the  reproductive  organs  often  varies  in  a 
singular  manner  in  different  races.  We  have,  for  instance, 
ro.ses  which  bloom  two  or  three  times  a  year,  and  straw- 
bemcs  whicli  remain  in  fruit  nearly  the  whole  year.  There 
are  oranges  crammed  with  j)ips,  and  others  in  which  they 
arc  almost  entirely  wanting.  J.>astly,  in  some  bananaij  and 
in  the  currant-grape  the  seeds  have  completely  disappeared. 
We  see  at  once  that  these  latter  jjroducts  of  hiiinan  industry 
ordy  exist  a.s  vdr'wtles. 

I\'.  In  animals  we  meet  with  facts  whieh  correspond 
i-.xaclly  with  those  which  we  have  just  ub.served  in  j)lants. 
Further,  we  find  that  they  experience  modifications  con- 
nected with  the  manifestations  of  the  sovicthhif/  whieh  wo 
have  called  the  Animal  Mhul. 

The  diversity  of  races  in  our  domestic  species  is  too  well 
known  to  make  it  neccs.sary  to  insist  upon  this  point.  1 
hlmll  otdy  mention  that  Darwin  reckons  IjjO  distinct  races 
of  pigeon.s,  and  declare  s  that  he  is  not  yet  ac(|uainled  with 
all.  TlicHc  ruccH  are,  moicover,  sufficiently  different  to 
render  u  redivihion  into  at  leitst  four  distinct  ijnicra  neces- 
«ary,  if  th(;y  arc  considered  a.s  so  many  spccioi.  Among 
inanimaJH  anaJogouH  facts  are  noticed,  in  the  ca.sc  of  the 
dog.  At  tl«e  Dog  Show  of  1S(>.'},  the  Society  of  Acclima- 
tiMition,  which  hail  been  very  strict  in  its  rules  of  admission 
and  only  received  p<!rfectly  pure  types,  collected  no  fewer 
than  Hcventy  races  of  dogs.     The   greater  number,  however, 


Nature  of  Variations  in  Races.  45 

belonged  to  Europe,  and  to  France  and  England  in  par- 
ticular; almost  all  those  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  were 
absent  from  tlio  collection,  so  that  altogether  we  are  jus- 
tified in  assuming  that  there  are  at  least  as  many  races  of 
dogs  as  of  pigeons.  As  to  morphological  differences  we 
need  only  mention  bull-dogs  and  greyhounds,  beagles  and 
Danish  carriage  dogs,  mastiffs  and  King  Charles's.  It  is 
scarcely  necessaiy  to  remark  that  these  external  differences 
suggest  the  idea  of  corresponding  modifications  in  the 
skeleton,  in  the  proportion  and  form  of  the  muscles.  Ana- 
tuuiical  differences  are  indeed  even  greater.  For  cxamjde, 
the  skull  of  the  water-spaniel  is  proportionately  double  the 
.size  of  that  of  the  bull-dog. 

There  arc  among  animals,  as  among  plants,  some  races 
which  develop  slowly,  and  otliers  which  increase  in  size 
rapidly.  As  in  plants,  fecundity  is  diminished  in  some  and 
increased  in  otliers.  When  they  are  too  perfect,  that  '\&  to 
say,  when  they  are  too  far  removed  from  their  natural  type, 
animal  races,  like  vegetable  races,  only  propagate  with  great 
difficulty,  or  even  not  at  all. 

Our  ordinary  races  of  sheep  only  give  birth  once  a  year 
to  a  single  lamb ;  the  "  hong-ti  "  twice  a  year  to  two  lambs 
each  time.  The  wild  sow  only  litters  once  a  year  with  but 
si.x  or  eight  young,  Init  when  domesticated  litters  twice  a 
year  with  from  ten  to  fifteen.  Her  fecvnidity  is  therefore  at 
lejust  tripled.  In  the  Indian  pig,  derived  from  the  "Aperca," 
it  is  more  than  seven  times  as  great. 

In  dogs,  habits  impo.sed  by  education,  transmitted  and 
strengthened  by  heredity,  finally  assume  the  appearance  of 
so  many  natural  instincts  by  which  races  are  as  nicely 
characterised  as  by  physical  peculiarities.  This  has  been 
established  beyond  a  doubt  by  the  experiments  carried  on 
by  Knight  during  more  than  thirty  years.  The  mention  of 
the  beagle  and  the  pointer  will  be  sufficient  to  recall  the 
c«>ntrast  which  in  many  cases  exists  between  these  acquired 
instincts.  Considered  as  the  relative  development  of  the 
intelligence,  properly  so  called,  the  difference  between  races 


46  TJic  Human  Species. 

is  aiso  very  marked  in  many  cases.     From  this  point  of  view 
we  need  only  compare  the  fp-eyhound  and  the  spaniel. 

V.  If  from  anhnaU  and  jylants  wc  pass  to  man,  we  sliall 
find  in  him,  as  in  the  two  inferior  kinf,'(h)ms,  groups  dis- 
tinguished by  anatomical,  physiological  and  psychological 
differences.  In  most  cases  the  same  organs  and  the  same 
fimctions  jjresent  analogous  modifications.  What  reason 
can  be  alleged  for  the  idea  that,  if  their  nature  is  considered, 
these  differences  and  modifications  have  a  greater  significa- 
tion in  man,  and  that  they  characterise  species  and  not  race? 
Clearly  n>ne ;  it  would  be  reasoning  against  the  laws  of 
analogy.  An  argument  ba.sed  upon  the  variations  presented 
by  the  manifestations  of  moralifi/  and  religion,  would  be 
a  neglect  of  the  fact  that  these  faculties  are  the  attributes 
of  tlie  human  kingdom,  that  they  are  wanting  in  the  other 
kingdoms,  and  are  not  in  consequence  susceptible  of  any  com- 
pari.son  of  this  kind.  In  that  which  is  oxchisivcly  luunan, 
man  can  only  be  compared  with  man. 

In  conclusion,  the  facts  of  the  variations  and  ditTerenccs 
existing  in  man  between  dilf'ereut  (jroups,  are  of  the  same 
nature  sm  those  established  between  different  races  of  animals 
and  plants.  The  nature  of  these  phenomeua  cannot  then  bo 
brought  forward  as  an  argument  in  favour  of  the  theory 
that  these  groups  are  so  many  species. 


CHAPTER    V. 

EXTKXT   OF   VARIATIONS    IN    ANIMAL   AND   VF.GETABLE 
RACES  ;    ArPLICATION  TO   MAN. 

I.  The  (lucstion  to  wliioli  tliis  cliaptcr  is  devoted  is  one  of 
those  which  I  shall  treat  most  fully  in  this  course.  In  fact, 
it  has  a  special  importance.  Nearly  all  the  polyf^cnistic 
arguments  are  included  in  the  following  : — "  The  ditfercnce 
l«'tween  the  Negro  and  the  White  is  too  great  for  them  to 
l»elong  to  the  same  species."  These  types  are  the  two  ex- 
tremes in  the  human  series.  Therefore,  if  it  can  be  shown 
that  between  the  two  extremes,  the  limits  of  variation  are 
almost  always  greater  in  plants  and  animals  than  in  man,  we 
shall  have  undermined  the  foundation  of  the  whole  poly- 
genistic  doctrine. 

Now,  even  if  we  leave  plants  out  of  the  ([uestion,  and 
(here  can  be  little  doubt  in  respect  to  them  ;  if  we  merely 
compare  man  and  animals,  organ  f(»r  organ,  function  for 
function,  we  shall  have  no  great  difficulty  in  arriving  at  the 
conclusion,  that  this  is  really  the  case;  so  much  so  that  we 
shall  l)o  led  to  a.'jk  the  (piestion,  why  the  variability  is  less 
in  man  than  in  animals.  The  complete  demonstration  of  this 
general  fact  would  require  more  extended  treatment  than  I 
am  able  to  give.  I  .shall,  therefore,  confine  myself  to  citing 
some  exam])ks. 

II.  The  colouring  of  the  skin  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
characteristics,  ami  one  which  is  most  apparent  to  the  eye. 
This  has  given  rise  to  the  expressions  White,  Yellow,  and 
r>lack,  which  are  most  improperly  used  to  designate  the 
three  fundamental  groups  of  mankind.  We  will  first  prove 
that  those  names'  possess  the  grave  inconvenience  of  giving 


48  The  II u man  Species. 

rise  to  itlt-as  which  are  entirely  erroneous.  Amongst  the 
^Mdtes  there  are  entire  po|)uhitions,  whose  skin  is  as  bUick 
as  that  of  the  darkest  Negro.  I  shall  only  quote  the 
Ijishareen  and  other  tribes  inhabiting  the  African  coasts  of 
the  Red  Sea,  the  black  Moors  of  Senegal,  etc.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  yellow  Negroes,  as  the  Bosjesmans,  who  are 
the  colour  of  light  mahogany,  or  of  cafe  au  lait,  as  Livingstone 
tells  us. 

It  is  no  less  true  that  colour  is  by  far  the  most  variable 
characteristic  in  man,  and  when  we  place  the  coal  black 
Xeijro  side  by  side  with  the  fair  ]yiiite  with  his  pinkish 
complexion,  the  contrast  is  striking.  But  this  contrast  is 
repeated  in  several  races  of  animals,  in  the  dog,  for  example, 
whose  skin  is  generally  blackish,  but  white  in  the  white 
jioodle.  It  is  the  same  among  horses,  a  fact  which  was 
known  even  to  Herodotus,  who  pronounces  white  horses  with 
a  black  .skin  as  superior  to  all  others. 

The  races  of  our  domestic  fowls  alone  present  the  three 
extreme  cohnirs  ob.servcd  in  man.  The  French  fowl  has  a 
white  skin  ;  in  the  cochin-china  it  approaches  to  yellow ;  it 
is  black  in  hlarh  folds.  Si)metimes  they  present  a  peculiarity 
himilar  to  that  which  I  mentioned  in  reference  to  the  horse  : 
a  dark  skin  accompanying  a  white  plumage  as  in  the  silk 
hen  of  Japan. 

These  same  black  fouls  po.sse.ss  several  interesting  pecu- 
liarities from  our  present  point  of  view.  In  Europe,  melanism 
appears  from  time  to  time  in  our  poultry-yanl.s,  and  woidd 
infallibly  spread  if  the  fowls  attacked  by  it  were  not  de- 
Htroycil.  It  is  perhaps  fmin  want  of  this  precaution  that 
black  fowls  have  been  developed  in  various  j)arts  of  the 
j;lt»lK',  among  others  in  the  Philippines,  in  Java,  in  the  Cape 
Vcrd  Inlands,  and  upon  the  plateau  of  ISogota,  all  of  which 
have  Im  en  derived  from  l^uropeaii  stocks.  Ah-lanism  appears 
moreovir,  in  groups  of  fowls  which  diO'er  niost  .stiikingly  in 
other  roKpfcth,  in  the  silk  h<  n  as  well  as  in  onr  ordinary  races. 

We  we  that  lilark  fnvh  are  in  no  sense  a  distinct  specie.% 
and   that  the   appearance  of  the   IJack  colour  is  merely  an 


Extent  of  Variations  in  Races.  49 

# 

accidental  character,  which  may  be  produced  in  races  very 
dissimilar  in  other  respects,  and  afterwards  propagated  by 
heredity.    Why  then  admit  that  it  has  been  otherwise  in  man  ? 

Again,  melanism  is  more  highly  developed  in  fowls  than 
in  man.  It  has  long  been  held  as  a  recognised  fact  that  the 
skidl  of  the  Negro  is  more  darkly  coloured  than  that  of  the 
White.  The  fact  is  true.  But  M.  Gubler  has  proved  that 
the  skull  of  a  very  dark  complexioned  White  was  coloured 
exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  Negro,  and  that 
this  peculiarity  was  sometimes  individual,  and  sometimes 
hereditiiry  in  certain  families.  In  fowls  also,  melanism 
penetrates  to  the  interior  ;  but  it  is  not  only  the  meninges 
which  present  peculiarities  similar  to  those  presented  by  the 
black  man.  With  them  all  the  mucous,  fibrou.s,  and  aponeu- 
rotic mend)rancs,  even  to  the  muscular  sheaths,  pos.se.ss  the 
same  colouring.  The  flesh  also  a.ssumes  a  repugnant  appear- 
ance, and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  propagation  of  black 
fi)wls  is  prevented  as  much  as  po.ssible. 

The  difference  in  colouring  is  easily  explained.  We  now 
know  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  skin  of  the  Negro  is  exactly 
the  same  in  composition  as  that  of  the  White.  W^c  find  the 
.same  layers  in  both  ;  the  dermis,  the  mucous  layer  and  the 
cjiUlemiis  present  exactly  the  .'■ame  structure.  The  layers 
are  merely  thicker  in  the  Negro.  In  these  two  gieat  races, 
the  mucous  layer,  situated  between  the  other  two,  is  the 
scat  of  colonr.  It  is  formed  of  cells  which  arc  of  a  pale 
yellow  colour  in  the  fair  ]Vhite,  of  a  more  or  less  brownish 
yellow  in  the  dayk  White,  and  of  a  blackish  brown  in  the 
Negro.  External  causes  have,  moreover,  an  influence  upon 
the  organ  and  modify  the  coloured  secretion.  Simon  has 
shown  that  freckles  are  nothing  more  than  spots  upon  the 
skin  of  the  White  presenting  the  characteristics  of  the  skin 
of  the  Negro,  and  we  know  that  an  unusual  exposure  to 
the  sun  in  the  men  and  women  of  our  race,  and  pregnancy 
in  the  liiltev,  is  sufficient  to  determine  the  formation  of  these 
spots. 

Whv,  then,  should  it  be  thought  strange  that  a  number  of 


50  The  J/iiiiian  S/nrics. 

circumstances,  a  constant  licit,  a  briglit  liglit,  &.C.,  shoiild  in- 
fluence the  whole  body  and  perpetuate  those  moditications 
which  in  us  are  only  circumscribed  and  transitory.  In 
treating  of  the  formation  of  the  human  races  we  shall  have, 
to  bring  forward  facts  which  will  clearly  prove  that  this  isj 
not  merely  liypothesis. 

Fimdlv,  the  colour  of  the  skin  depends  upon  a  simple 
secretion  which  is  subject  to  mollification  under  a  number  of 
circumstances,  as  is  the  case  with  many  others.  There  is, 
therefore  nothing  strange  in  the  fact  that  some  human 
groups,  dilTering  widely  in  other  resi)ects,  should  resemble 
each  other  in  the  matter  of  colour.  This  is  the  reason  why 
the  Hindoo  (.hv/^oO,  the  Bisharee  and  the  '^loov  (Semitic), 
although  belonging  to  the  White  race,  assume  the  same,  and 
even  a  darker  hue  than  the  true  Negro.  It  also  explains 
the  fact  that  the  colour  of  the  Negro  approximates  in  certain 
cases,  to  that  of  peoples  belonging  to  the  white  stock  who 
are  more  or  less  of  a  brown  colour,  or  assumes  a  hue  which 
exactly  recalls  that  of  tlie  yellow  races. 

Thus,  in  man,  as  in  animals,  the  aphorism  is  verified 
which  was  formulated  by  Linnaus  in  regard  to  jilaiits  : — • 
in  mi  inn  nic  crede  colori. 

III.  I  shall  not  dwell  at  any  length  upon  the  mcnlifica- 
tions  of  the  hair  and  villosities.  They  are  miich  more 
apparent  than  real  in  man.  Whether  fair  or  black,  fine  and 
of  a  woolly  appearance,  as  in  the  Negro,  or  coarse  and  stitl', 
an  in  the  yellow  and  retl  races ;  whether  the  transverse 
Hcclion  is  circular  :ls  in  the  Yellow  race,  oval,  as  in  the  White, 
or  elliptic,  a-s  in  the  Negro,  tlie  hiiir  rem<iins  liuir.  The 
wtjolly  fleece  of  our  .sluep,  on  tho  contrary,  is  in  part  of 
Africa,  replaced  by  a  short  and  smooth  hair.  In  America 
the  Mamc  Ih  the  cjuse  with  the  sheep  of  the  Madeleine  when- 
ever they  are  left  unshorn  ;  juid  on  the  other  hand,  in  the 
high  plains  of  th*?  An<les,  the  wild  bo.-irs  acfpiirt-  a  kind  of 
coame  wool. 

The  practice  of  certain  natives  of  shaving  ofT  all  hair  has 
inoUe    hMini-    fr:i\ill.  r«    b.li.ve   in   the   existence   of  hunian 


Application  to  Man. 


51 


niccs  which  arc  entirely  hairless  ;  the  error  ha.s  however 
been  recognised.  All  men  possess  hair  in  the  normal  places. 
Hairless  dogs  and  horses  are,  liowever,  known  to  exist.  In 
America,  where  the  oxen  have  a  European  origin,  the  hair 
commences  with  becoming  very  fine  and  few  in  number 
with  the  peloncs,  and  disappears  entirely  with  the  calongos; 
and  if  the  latter  do  not  increase  in  numbsr,  it  is  due  to 
their  being  .systematically  destroyed  from  an  idea  that  they 
are  a  degenerate  race. 

It  is  evident  that  in  these  several  respects  the  variations 
are  more  extensive  in  animals  than  in  man. 

IV.  This  fact  becomes  more  evident  when  it  is  possible  to 
substitute  exact  measurements  for  merely  general  ideas,  and 
to  compare  figures.  The  variations  in  size  present  this 
advantage,  and  it  is  interesting  to  compare  from  this  point 
of  view  the  extremes  of  some  animal  races  with  the  ex- 
tremes admitted  in  human  groups. 


BPECIEi. 

R.\CE. 

DIFFERXCE. 

m.      ft.  in. 
!  1-02.-.     2  4-27 

loiO       1   3-74 

1  104       3  41)4 
1 

o-7ir>    2  4ir> 
1  0 ;'.:,     1  2- 18 

RATIO. 

Dogs  (length  .     .     . 
Babbits  (length) 
Jlorec  (height)     .     . 
■^hcep  (height)    .     . 

Small  Spaniel . 
St.  licriianl     . 
Xii^ard    .     .     . 
lUlicr     .     .     . 
Shetland     .     . 
Dray  Horse     . 

m.      ft.    in. 
o:jo.->    1 

l-;{28     3     4-27 
0-20             7-87 
0(50       1   11  ■(i2 
0-7G       2     5'J2 
1-80       5  10  85 
():J2r>     1     0-7'J 
1040    .1    4;»4 
1-37       4     5'.».T 
1-72       6     611 

0-2 
0-3 
0-4 
0-3 
0-8 

Man  (mean  height) . 
n              n 

Rofijesman  .     . 
I'atngonian     . 

We  8ce  that  the  variation  between  faces  is  in  the  horso 
twice  as  great  as  in  man,  nearly  three  times  in  the  sheep 
and  rabbit,  and  four  times  as  much  in  the  dog.  The  difter- 
cnce  is  perhaps  even  more  striking  in  the  goat  and  ox, 
jutlging  from  the  terms  of  comparison  used  by  .several 
travellers. 

If,  after  having  studied  the  various  dimensions  of  the  body, 
we  compare  the  differences  in  proportion  pre.sented  on  the 


52  The  Human  Species. 

one  hand  by  animals  and  on  the  other  by  human  groups,  we 
shall  arrive  at  similar  results.  Without,  however,  entering 
into  details  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention  the  greyhound 
and  the  beagle. 

V.  One  of  the  most  singular  external  characters,  and  one 
which  has  often  been  insisted  upon  as  being  necessarily  a 
character  of  species,  is  that  presented  by  the  Bosjesman 
women.  It  is  generally  known  that  at  the  lower  extremit}'^ 
of  the  loins  they  develop  a  fatty  mass  which  sometimes 
increases  to  a  considerable  protuberance,  as  may  be  seen  in 
the  Hottentot  Venus,  the  model  of  which  is  in  the  Paris 
Museum.  This  steatopygia  reappears  however  in  certain 
tribes  situated  much  further  north  than  the  Houzouana 
races,  while  Livingstone  states  that  certain  women  of  the 
Boors,  incontestably  of  Dutch  origin,  had  begun  to  be 
affected  by  it.  From  this  fact  alone,  this  exaggerated 
development  of  the  adipose  tissue  loses  the  value  which 
many  wished  to  attach  to  it. 

If,  however,  the  steatopygia  were  to  exist  only  among  the 
Houzouanas  we  could  not,  on  that  account,  regard  it  as  a 
character  of  species,  for  it  has  been  proved  in  animals  where 
it  is  only  a  character  of  race.  Pallas  has  proved  this  fact  in 
certain  sheep  of  Central  Asia.  In  these  animals  the  tail 
disappears  and  is  reduced  to  a  simple  coccyx,  to  the  right 
and  left  of  which  are  situated  two  hemispherical  fatty  masses 
weighing  from  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  each.  Here,  again, 
the  variation  is  propoitionally  greater  than  in  the  Bosjesman 
woman. 

We  cannot  regard  these  sheep  as  a  different  species,  for 
when  the  Russians  removed  the  same  animals  from  the 
country  in  which  they  were  born,  the  steatopygia  disappeared 
in  a  few  generations.  It  is,  therefore,  merely  a  character  of 
race  Avhich  can  only  be  preserved  in  the  place  where  it 
was  developed,  as  may  bo  seen  in  a  number  of  other  cases. 

VI.  Jt  is  evident  that  the  preceding  character  is  just  as 
much  internal  as  external;  it  is  also  evident  that  neitiier  the 
size,  nor  the  proportions  of  the  trunlc  and  limbs,  can  vary, 


Extent  of  Variations  in  Races.  53 

unless  the  skeleton  and  the  accompanying  muscles  experience 
corresponding  modifications.  Tlie  anatomical  characters 
change  then  with  the  race  in  animals,  as  v/ell  as  external 
characters.  There  are,  however,  certain  facts  which  relate 
more  directly  to  anatomy.     I  will  quote  a  few  cases. 

A  dog's  fore-paw  possesses  normally  five  well-formed  toes, 
while  the  hind-paws  have  only  four  with  a  rudimentary  fifth. 
Tliis  latter  disappears  in  some  races,  mostly  of  a  diminutive 
size.  In  certain  large  races,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  developed, 
and  becomes  equal  to  the  other  four.  There  must  be  then  a 
formation  of  bone  corresponding  to  tlie  tarsus  and  meta- 
tarsus. 

Something  analogous  to  the  appearance  we  have  just 
remarked  may  be  observed  in  the  pig,  complicated,  however, 
by  a  fresh  phenomenon.  Here  the  normal  foot  bears  two 
small  rudimentary  lateral  toes,  and  two  medial  toes,  each 
with  its  own  hoof.  Now  in  certain  races,  already  known  to 
the  ancients,  a  third  medial  toe  is  developed,  and  the  whole 
is  enveloped  in  a  single  hoof.  Instead  of  being  cloven-footed, 
which  is  the  normal  type  of  the  species^  the  race  becomes 
solidungulate. 

Nothing  of  this  kind  is  ever  seen  in  man.  In  every  race 
the  feet  maintain  their  ordinary  composition,  in  the  Bosjesman 
as  in  the  Patagonian.  Some  teratological  exceptions  with 
a  tendency  to  heredity  are  nevertheless  occasionally  displayed, 
of  which  we  shall  speak  in  another  chapter. 

VII.  Tlie  vertebral  column  is,  so  to  speak,  the  fundamental 
portion  of  the  skeleton,  and  yet  it  does  not  vary  the  less  on 
that  account.  I  shall  not  insist  upon  the  ditierences  pre- 
sented by  its  caudal  portion,  merely  remarking  that  there 
are  races  of  dogs,  sheep,  and  goats,  in  which  the  tail  is  so 
reduced  as  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  short  coccyx. 

The  central  portions  themselves  are  known  to  be  liable  to 
cliange.  Philippi  tells  us  that  the  oxen  of  Piacentino  had 
thirteen  libs  instead  of  twelve,  and,  consequently,  an  extra 
doi-sal  vertebra.  In  the  pig  Eyton  has  observed  the  dorsal 
vertebrae  vary  from  thirteen  to  fifteen,  the  lumbar  from  four 


54  The  Htunan  Species. 

to  six,  the  sacral  from  four  to  five,  and  the  caudal  from 
thirteen  to  t\Yenty-thrce,  so  that  the  total  is  forty-four  in  the 
African  pig  and  fifty-four  in  the  English  pig. 

In  man,  the  presence  of  one  extra  vertebra  has  occasionally 
been  observed.  These  have  ahva3's  been  isolated  cases, 
except  in  one  Dutch  family,  quoted  by  Vrolich.  But  it  docs 
not  approximate  to  a  constant  character  in  any  human  gi'oup, 
and  if  such  a  group  did  exist,  it  is  evident  that  tlie  variation 
would  here  again  be  less  than  in  animals,  for  Avithout  even 
reckoning  the  tail,  it  is  three  times  stronger  in  the  latter. 

Of  course,  I  do  not  take  into  consideration  Avhat  has  been 
so  often  said  of  men  asserted  to  have  tails.  AVc  now  know 
better  how  much  credit  to  attach  to  this  statement.  But 
the  variations  which  take  place  in  the  caudal  region  among 
animals  teaches  us  that  even  a  considerable  elongation  of 
the  coccyx  in  a  human  group,  and  the  multiplication  of  the 
vertebra'  which  compose  it,  must  not  bo  considered  a  'priori 
as  a  specific  character. 

VIII.  It  might  have  been  exjiected  that  the  head  would 
have  escaped  modifications,  on  account  of  the  importance  of 
the  organs  which  belong  t<j  it.  But  such  is  not  the  ca.se,  and 
here  again  the  modifications  are  nmch  greater  in  animals 
than  in  man.  Bhunonbach  remarked  long  ago  that  there 
was  more  ditVerence  between  the  head  of  a  domestic  pig  and 
the  wild  boar  lli.iu  between  that  of  the  White  and  the 
Negio.  Theie  are  no  domestic  species  to  which  the  same 
reniaik  cannot  be  applied.  But  J  shall  only  remind  the  reader 
of  ill"'  heads  of  the  biill-ihig,  grc-yliound  ;ind  sp.aniel. 

The  extent  to  which  the  moditicalions  of  the  head  can  be 
cariied  is  nowiiere  more  plainly  shown  than  in  the  nulla  cattle 
of  BuenoB  Ayres  and  La  Plata.  This  ox  exhibits  the  modifi- 
cations of  the  sjx'cific  characters  sitnilar  to  those  which  tiic 
bull-dog  presents  among  dogs.  All  the  foiins  are  shortened 
and  thickened,  the  head  in  particular  seeming  to  have  ex- 
perienced a  geneial  movement  of  concentration.  The  inferior 
maxillary  bone,  although  itself  shortened,  so  far  exceeds  tiie 
Kiijurior   in    length  that    the  animal    is  nnable  to  browse  the 


Application  to  Ufan.  55 

trees.  The  cranium  is  as  much  deformed  as  the  face;  not 
only  are  the  forms  of  tlie  bones  modified,  but  also  their 
relations,  not  one  of  which,  according  to  Professor  Owen, 
has  been  strictly  preserved.  Tiiis  race,  though  perfectly 
established,  is  not  therefore  necessarily  of  less  recent  origin  ; 
for,  as  I  remarketl-  above,  all  the  American  oxen  are  des- 
cended from  European  stocks.  It  is  already  represented  in 
the  New  World  by  two  sub-races,  one  of  which,  that  of 
Buenos  Ayrcs,  has  preserved  the  horns,  while  that  of  Mexico 
h;is  lost  them. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark  that  no  liuman  gi-oup 
presents  anything  at  all  analogous  to  this. 

IX.  The  several  facts  which  I  have  here  enumerated  seem 
to  me  sufficient  to  justify  the  proposition  wliich  I  asserted  at 
the  commencement  of  the  chapter,  namely: — that  the  limits  of 
variation  are  almost  always  more  extensive  between  certain 
races  of  animals  than  between  the  most  distant  human 
groups. 

Consequently,  however  great  the  differences  existing  be- 
tween these  human  groups  may  be,  or  may  appear  to  be,  to 
consider  them  aa  sj^ecijic  characters  is  a  perfectly  arbitrary 
estimation  of  their  value.  It  is,  to  say  the  least,  quite  as 
rational,  quite  as  scientific,  to  consider  these  differences  only 
as  characters  of  race,  and  even  on  that  account  to  refer  all 
the  human  groups  to  a  single  species. 

The  legitimacy  of  this  conclusion  is  incontestable.  Now, 
I  repeat,  that  this  conclusion  is  sufficient  to  destroy  the  very 
foundation  of  the  polygenistic  theory.  In  reality  this  theory 
rests  entirely  upon  iiiovphohxjical  considerations.  Its  parti- 
sans, struck  only  by  the  material  dififerences  presented  by  the 
himian  groups,  have  thought  it  impossible  to  account  for 
them,  except  by  the  admission  of  the  existence  of  several 
species.  By  showing  that  facts  of  this  nature  can  be  eqiially 
well  interpreted  under  the  hypothesis  of  the  Unity  of  the 
Species,  monogenism  and  polygeuism  are,  so  to  speak,  placed 
on  an  equal  footing. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

INTERCROSSING   AND   FUSION   OF  CHARACTERS   IN  ANIMAL 
RACES;    APPLICATION   TO   MAN. 

Without  even  quitting  tlic  ground  of  moipliology,  it  will  bo 
easy  to  prove  which  theory  is  most  probably  the  correct  one. 

We  know  that  naturalists  consider  tliat  all  individuals 
which  pass  from  one  to  another  by  invisible  shades  belong  to 
the  same  species,  however  different  the  extremes  may  be. 
All  great  museums  contain  examples  of  this  fact. 

The  grounds  for  this  conclusion  arc  much  stronger  when 
there  exists  an  intcrcrosslnff  of  characters.  This  inter- 
crossing exists  when  a  very  decided  and  apparently  exclusive 
character  reappears  in  one  or  several  individuals  differing 
widely  in  other  respects,  and  undoubtedly  bulonging  to 
distinct  groups.  It  is  a  case  of  intercrossing  again,  when 
the  .same  character  varies  in  such  a  mann(>r  jus  to  lead,  if 
considered  apart,  to  the  division  of  a  natural  group,  and  to 
the  separation  of  the  fractions  into  very  different  group.s. 

Now  there  is  no  animal  species  which  presents  these 
e.s.seiitially  morphological  characters  in  a  higher  degree  than 
man.  Winn  the  human  groups  are  studied  in  some  detail, 
the  difliculty  dues  not  consist  in  finding  resemblances,  but 
in  clearly  defining  the  tlifference.s.  The  more  carefully  they 
are  consiilered,  the  more  they  disaj)pear  and  become  oblite- 
rated. We  then  understand  tiie  accounts  given  by  most 
trustworthy  travellers,  such  jus  d'Abbadie,  of  coutitries  where 
the  Negro  and  the  White  live  side  by  side.  In  their 
extremes  these  two  typ'-s  are  certainly  very  di.stinct.  But 
in  Abyssinia,  for  exami>le,  where  they  have  long  lived 
iu  contact,  and  intermingled,  the  Negro  is  no  longer  cha- 


Lifcirrossing'  and  Fusion  of  Characters.       57 

racterisL'd  by  cither  colour,  features,  or  hair,  but  simply  by 
the  exaggerated  protruberancc  of  the  lieel.  This  character  in 
its  turn,  however,  loses  its  value  on  the  Eastern  coast  of  Africa, 
where  whole  Negro  tribes  liave  the  heel  formed  like  ours. 

Tills  is  an  example  of  intercrosslufj,  and  they  could  easily 
be  multiplied,  I  have  already  observed  how  closely  the 
Aryan  or  Dravidian  Hindoos,  African  or  Melanesian  Negroes 
and  manifestly  Semitic  populations  may  resemble  each  otlier 
in  colour.  The  following  is  a  still  more  striking  example. 
Desmoulins  regarded  the  perforation  of  the  olecranon  process 
as  one  of  the  most  decided  chaiacters  of  his  Aiuitro- African 
species  of  man.  Now  this  perforation  reappears  in  Egyptian 
and  Guanche  mummies,  in  a  large  number  of  European 
skeletons  of  the  neolithic  period,  the  crania  of  which  more- 
over, exhibit  no  other  relations  with  those  of  the  Bosjesmans, 
and  even  in  some  Europeans  of  the  present  epoch. 

The  intercrossing  of  characters  between  human  groups 
becomes  still  more  evident  from  the  comparison  of  numerical 
data  taken  from  a  number  of  different  groups.  I  shall  con- 
fine myself  for  the  moment  to  giving  the  results  arrived  at 
by  the  study  of  the  stature  when  the  representative 
numbers  are  placed  in  order.  We  shall  presently  meet 
with  other  examples. 

I  here  rcpnxluce  the  table  published  in  the  Vojarjc  of  the 
Novara,  by  Dr.  Wei.sbach.  I  have  addeil  to  the  figures  of 
the  Austrian  savant  a  few  data  relating  especially  to  the 
smallest  races.  I  have  also  given  the  maxima  and  minima 
wht-re  T  have  bi-en  able  to  procure  them,  so  ;vs  to  make  the 
extent  of  the  variation  more  appreciable  than  is  possible  from 
the  average  alone  : 

STATURE    OF    DIFFEIIENT    IIU.MAN    RACES. 

n<)«jc8mnnfl  (miii.)  |                                                          ™-  '[•  }^- 

Esquimaux  (iiiiii.)  j M(H)  3  a-37 

Obongo  (youn;:) l-.ICO  4  5.(54 

Bosjesmans  (av.)  ) 

Minco|)ccs  (mill.)  j I'.iil*  4  59;i 

Lapps  (mill.) i;tst)  4  r.-:».l 

Aiitaa  (min.) l-;j'jG  4  G-% 


5S 


TJic  / III  Jill 


Pcraanfrs  (min.) 
MincoiKjcs  (av.)    . 
rHisjosinauB  (max.) 
(iiianchcs 
Si'nianps  (hv.) 
Stmaii(rs  (max.)  . 
Mincojwc.s  (max.) 
Ai-tas  (av.)  . 
Fiu'ijians  (miii.) 
rapu.ir.s 
C'liiiiesc  (mill.) 
rata^'onians  (min.) 
Laj.j.s  (av.)      . 
Aymaias  (min.)    . 
Sclavcs  (mill.) 
Fronch  (min.) 
Javanofio  (min.) 
Ncproes  (.') 
Jiiap.s  ) 

Ai'la-s  (max.)  \ 
Aymara-s  (av.) 
(icrmans  (min.)  i 
'I'arlars  of  Oiot.solii  / 
Kamska<lales  ) 

Malajs  of  Malat'ca  1 
Dyaks  (min.)  /    . 

Australian.s  (min.)  ) 
New  Caledonians  (min.) 
Cochin  Chinese  (av.) 
Transpan^ians  (av.) 
Vanikorians 
'Jimnriann 
Amlnnnians  \ 
r<nn  ians       \ 
lUtlaH  I 

Mahiys  (av.)  ( 
NicoharianH  .         . 

Atlstralians  (av.)  \ 
yiiii-hna>»  / 

KnpliHh  (min.)      i 
I'oiihycrH  (av.)     . 
I,aii|)H  (m:i.x. )  . 
'I'ahiliaiiH  (av.) 
AiiHtraliaiiH  (av.) 
Toiilrfinn  I 
(in;iraniHi     ' 
I'apunnH  of  Vait'ioM 
Minf(p|K;i-K  (max.) 
Kni-vrianM  (av.) 
CaliforninnH 
MailiircMc 
•  'ini;!»l'*«! 
y\n'l'>-r"nivianti 
Kr»!nrh  of  Iht 
(.'hincur  (av.) 


■5/ 


dies. 


ni. 

ft. 

in. 

1120 

4 

7-;io 

ll:!<; 

4 

8-r>3 

111.-. 

4 

8-.s;> 

1147 

4 

cS-I)7 

144.S 

4 

9(K) 

M7;{ 

4 

1I!»'J 

MS(» 

4 

1017 

Ms2 

4 

1(K!.-. 

llss 

4 

l(>.->.s 

MS'.i 

4 

l(>t;2 

1  •.-.!'() 

4 

11 -M 

i-.-,:;o 

5 

0-24 

l-.-.:i2 

5 

o:ji 

1  ■.-.:{7 

r> 

o-.-,i 

1  •.■.!() 

t> 

0(;2 

]•.■.!:{ 

n 

o-7r> 

i-.vi;» 

c 

oys 

1  •:..-,.-, 

5 

1-22 

i:.i;i 

5 

1-4.-. 

\m:\ 

5 

\o\\ 

l-.-.7() 


1-.-.74 


1-.-.7.-. 

1  •.-.s:{ 
1  •.-.sc, 


i-.-.:t7 
inyy 


ir,(K) 


mth  I 


1  ^2.-. 


1027 
I  -Clio 


5     ISl 


ly; 


5  2(M> 

r,  2■.^2 

5  2-4(; 

5  2-7y 

5  2-87 

6  2-9.-) 

c  2yy 


1  CIO 

5 

.■i:!.s 

ic.i:! 

-, 

;t:.o 

II-.  II 

r. 

'.\:<\ 

i(;i7 

5 

3G(! 

i(;2o 

5 

3-78 

ii;2i 

G 

;i-y4 

5    .i-ys 


5    4-0:, 

5     417 


lulcrcrossina^  and  Fusion  of  Cliaractcrs.       59 


Nicobftrians      ... 

Ik'ljjians  (iniii.)    . 

Austrian  Stlavcs  (miii.) 

Austrian  Uuumaiiians  ) 

Majn-ars  \ 

.IcWH  .... 

Gravidas  (av.) 

Arauoaniaus    .         .         . 

Bavarians     .... 

Antisians 

FueKian.s(niax.)  ) 

(Ytfs  [ 

Dyaks  (max.)       ) 

Hagis       .... 

NeprocB  (?) 

French,  working  claiJHOS  (av.) 

Austrian  Germans 

Ks<iuimau.\  of  Molvillc  Is. 

Koumanians  (min.) 

Kii»'trians(max.) 

Chiquitos 

HottcntotB 

French  of  the  Nortli 

.Mpcri.in  Aralis 

New  Caledonians  ) 

M0XO8  \ 

rami>cans  (av.)    . 

Kwiuimaux  of  Savage  Ishmd  \ 

Haw.ii'ans  f 

New  Califomians  I 

Malays  of  SfM>lo  ) 

Austrian  Sclaves  (av.)  \ 

ItusHians  \ 

Javanese  .... 

Germans  j 

Negroes   >    . 

Chamias  ) 

French,  upjicr  classcH  (av.) 

Ojihlu'ways  (min.)  | 

Nufivi's  of  Madras^ 

Fijians 

Negroes  of  Sokoto 
licigiatiH  (av.) 
Knglish  (av.) 
i'ainpas  Indians 
Mari|ni-s:iH  Ishin<lerH 
Ksiiuiniaux  of  H<x;thia  sound 
^olnalis    .... 
New  Zealanders  . 
I*uclche8  J 

Comma  Negroes  \   . 
Tahitians  (min.)  ) 
I^tts  1 

ikotuma  Islanders  ^       .         . 
Courouglis  (av.)    j 


ni. 

ft. 

in. 

ICSI 

5 

4-21 

I(;:i2 

it 

4-2.-> 

i(;:t4 

0 

4-33 

icr. 

5 

4-37 

ir.a: 

5 

4-4.-> 

llWO 

5 

4 -.-,7 

ir.4i 

."i 

4-01 

\i\V.\ 

."■> 

4-(;s 

lG4o 

5 

4-76 

lG.-;0 


i(;(;3 


IGOj 

ir.70 

1G73 


i(;78 
i-(;7u 


lf.8() 


1-7(K.I 


1-701 


5     4-90 


lf..-3 

.5 

r,-08 

1  •<)'>.■) 

5 

5-10 

i-(;r,7 

T, 

5-24 

1  •t;.-..s 

5 

r.-27 

ic.-.u 

r, 

r,-n 

ICGO 

5 

5-35 

b  547 

5  5'5G 

5  5'75 

5  5-87 


1-G7G         5     ;V98 


5     C0(; 
5     CIO 

5     C-U 


1G81 

5 

G18 

i-(;,s2 

5 

G-22 

1  r,s4 

it 

G-31 

1  Cs.-* 

5 

G-34 

1  t;sG 

5 

G:ts 

1-GS7 

5 

G-42 

1  GS8 

5 

G-4G 

1  -GSI) 

5 

C-50 

IG'.iO 

G 

G.-,4 

IC.'.i.-. 

5 

G-73 

C     Gy3 


5    G-yG 


6o 


TJic  Iliiuiau  Species. 


III. 

1-7(12 

i-7(>:j 

l-7().-> 
1-708 

1-711 


l-7S-.( 


1  -ot  ((  ) 


in. 
7 -(H) 
7  04 
718 
7-24 

7-48 


Austrian  Roumanians      .        . 

Kabvlcs  (av.) 

Caroline  Islanders    . 

Marianne  Islanders 

En?li>h  (max.) 

Ewjuiniaux  of  Kotzebuc  Strait  | 

Australians  (max.) 

I'ottowatomis 

Caraibcs 

Ilarakai'ans 

T.schu\vacks 

I'ataj^onians  (av.  of  U'Oib.) 

Tschcrcassians 

I'atagonians  (av.  of  D'Urv.) 

Sci)oy8  of  lk'ni,'al    .         . 

C'liincsc  (max.)     . 

Ki'iuallis  .         .         • 

Hawaians     .        .        .        i 

New  Zealandii-.s 

I'atajjonians  (av.  Must.) 

Germans  (max.) 

Polynesians  (av.)     . 

rilcairn  Islanders 

K>iumanians(max.) 

Ojibljeways  (av.)  \ 

A^'aces  of  the  I'ampas  ( 

New  Caknlonians  (max.) 

Taliitians  (av.)      .      | 

Maniucsas  Islanders  ) 

Stc-A-art  Islander- 

Kailirs 

Dutch 

Ikrl^ian-s  (max.)  \ 

8<-lavc8  f 

Aymara-s  (max.)  {. 

Maniucsas  IslanderH  (max.)  ) 

Taliitians  (max.)      .... 

Nrw  Zealanilers  ..... 

Mli.-iya 

('arail)OH 

(>jiblH;wayH  (max.) 

SchifTer  Islanderrt         .... 

N<!W  ZealanihrrH  (max.) 

I'ata^cmianH  of  \.\\v.  Ncirlh  (max.  of  I)' 

J'ntai;i»niftnH  tif  the  South  (max.  .Mu>t< 

SetiifTiT  IslatidiTH 

Ton^^atuban  Ihlauders 

Wo  here  see  what  stranj^o  rehitiojis  and  what  a  singtihir 
confuHioti  rise  from  a  consiilcratjoii  of  the  stattue.  Nmubers 
given  in  the  same  order,  repro.si'ntinij  the  size  of  the  skull, 
tho  cephalic  indices,  the  weigiit  of  the  brain,  will  j^'ivu  the 
Kanie  striking;  rcsnlt.    • 


1-72,S 

r> 

8o:j 

1-730 

c 

811 

i-7:u 

5 

8-15 

l-7:t2 

r, 

8-19 

i-7:{:{ 

5 

8-2.3 

1-7U 

n 

8-(;g 

i-7:.2 

n 

8-!t7 

1  -7."i.') 

r. 

y-o'.> 

1  -( j( 

•    5 

y-17 

1-770 

G 

9-Gl) 

1-77(1 

r. 

9-92 

1777 

T) 

9-90 

1-780 

5 

1008 

1-7S1 

C 

1012 

l-78d 

5 

10-28 

r7sii 

5 

10-32 

C  10-U 


5  10-80 


^            ^ 

1  -803 

n  1008 

i-sir> 

r.  11 -^c. 

^            ^ 

isn 

6     0-lS 

l-8fi8 

0    (•,-.-.  1 

^            , 

1 -K7.-) 

C.      1  -82 

1  -s'.i.-, 

(J    2-r,i 

l-'.ioi 

0     2-90 

Orb.) 

.      1  -'.1 1 .-. 

C.     3-39 

•rs)       . 

1  '.IL'I 

r,    3  7.-. 

MtwO 

6     3-98 

Application  to  Man.  6r 

We  must  also  observe  that  there  is  a  great  majority  of 
moans  in  this  tabic.  Now  we  sec  that  tlie  discrepancies 
between  these  means  are  less  than  the  discrepancies  between 
the  maximum  and  minimum  of  a  single  race,  so  much  so 
that  races  widely  distinct  from  each  other  intervene  between 
them. 

Now  let  us  mentally  compare  instead  of  these  groups,  the 
individuals  of  which  they  are  composed.  Is  it  not  clear 
that  if  they  were  placed  according  to  height,  we  should  pass 
from  one  to  the  other  with  scarcely  the  ditference  of  a 
millimetre  ;  but  is  it  not  also  clear  that  the  confusion  would 
become  much  greater  than  it  appears  even  in  the  table  ? 

I  ask  anyone  who  possesses  even  the  smallest  knowledge 
of  zoology  and  zoutechny  whether  it  v.ould  be  in  a  collection 
of  species  that  he  would  expect  to  find  the  most  evident 
affinities  destroyed  by  the  application  of  this  method? 
Would  it  not  be  rather  in  a  collection  of  races  that  siujilar 
facts  would  be  met  with,  as,  fur  example,  in  canine  races, 
where  the  mastiff  anel  its  young,  the  greyhound  of  Saintonge 
and  the  Italian  greyhound,  the  large  and  the  i^mall  carriage 
dt)g  would  be  separated  from  each  other  by  a  number  of  other 
riices  if  stature  alone  were  taken  into  account. 

The  intercrossing  and  fusion  of  characters,  so  marked 
between  human  groups,  are  inexplicable  if  we  consider  these 
groups  as  species,  unless  we  admit  that  the  morphological 
relations  between  these  human  tti^ecie^  arc  of  an  entirely 
jlifferent  nature  to  the  relations  established  between  animal 
species.  But  this  hijpolJte.sls  makes  an  exception  of  man  ; 
we  have,  therefore,  the  right  to  regard  it  as  false. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  we  look  upon  these  groups  as  nothing 
more  than  races  of  a  single  species,  all  these  facts  of  inter- 
crossing and  fusion  agree  with  what  may  be  observed  in 
plants  and  animals  and  replace  man  under  the  dominion  of 
general  laws. 

Thus,  without  quitting  morphological  considerations, 
which  corres}x»nd  to  the  idea  of  resemblance  contained  in 
the   definition    of  species,  we   are  jii^tifiid    in  rdiieliuling  in 


62  The  Hum  an  Species. 

favour  of  monogonism.  To  confiiin  this  conclusion,  however, 
we  must  turn  our  attention  to  other  facts  which  correspond 
to  the  idea  of  Jlliation,  and  consider  the  teachings  of 
physiology  concerning  the  phenomena  o(  yeneration. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

CROSSING   OF  RACES  AND  SPECIES   IN  THE  ANIMAL  AND 
VEGETABLE   KINCDOMS. — MONGRELS   AND   IIYHRTDS. 

1.  Sexl'al  unions  in  plants,  as  in  animals,  can  take  place 
between  individuals  of  the  same  species  and  the  same  race  ; 
further,  between  different  races  of  the  sam^  species,  and, 
finally,  between  different  species.  In  the  two  latter  cases 
we  have  what  is  called  a  cross.  This  crossing  itself  is  dif- 
ferently  named  according  to  whether  it  takes  place  between 
different  races  or  different  species.  In  the  first  case  it  pro- 
duces a  moiifjrel,  in  the  second  a  hybrid.  When  the  cross 
unions  arc  fertile  the  product  of  the  union  of  mongrels  is 
called  a  mongrel,  the  product  of  the  union  of  hybrids  a 
hl/hrid. 

If  the  difference  of  the  relations  existing  between  the  race 
and  the  species  has  been  properly  understood,  we  ought  to 
be  inclined  to  admit  that  mongrels  and  hybrids  would  not 
present  the  same  phenomena  ;  experience  and  observation 
'  "iifirm  this  presentiment. 

We  have,  therefore,  in  this  crossing  a  means  of  judgino- 
wliether  the  human  groups  are  only  races  of  a  single  species, 
or  rather  distinct  species.  For  this  purpose  it  will  bo 
sufficient  to  study  the  phenomena  which,  in  other  organisecl 
and  living  beings,  accompany  the  production  of  mongrel.-? 
and  hybrids,  and  then  to  compare  with  both  the  phenomena 
which  characterise  the  crosses  effected  between  human 
groups.  If,  in  the  latter  case,  the  phenomena  arc  those 
which  characteri.se  hybridism,  we  must  conclude  that  the 
groups  are  specifically  distinct,  and  admit  the  multiplicity 
of  human  species.  If,  however,  cro.sses  between  human 
4 


64  The  IIiDuan  Species. 

groups,  moipliologicall}'  different,  arc  accompanied  by  plicno- 
mena  peculiar  to  tlic  production  of  monrfrels,  we  shall  only 
be  justified  in  considering  tbcsc  groups  as  races  of  one 
species ;  we  must  take  our  stand  upon  the  doctrine  of  the 
Specific  Unity  of  all  mankind. 

The  qtiestion  before  us  becomes  then  entirely  a  physiological 
one,  and  depends  simply  upon  observation  and  experiment. 
For  its  solution  we  must  again  turn  our  attention  to  plants 
as  well  as  to  animals.  It  is  in  the  phenomena  of  reproduc- 
tion that  the  two  kingdoms  show  the  greatest  resemblance. 
This  is  not  a  ca.se  of  mere  analofjij,  but  almost  of  identity, 
and  it  is  not  the  superior  which  lowers  itself  but  the  inferior 
which  is  raised.  We  might  say  that,  cnnubled  by  the  im- 
portance of  the  function,  the  plant,  as  far  as  its  reproductive 
system  is  concerned,  becomes,  for  the  time,  animal. 

II.  In  these  kingdoms  the  unions  between  races  of  the 
same  sjyecies,  that  is  to  say,  the  ;:>}-0(?«c/ic)>i  of  mongrels, 
may  be  accomplished  without  any  interventiuu  on  the  part 
of  man,  or  it  may  take  place  under  his  direction.  It  is 
consequently  cither  natural  or  artificial. 

Mongrels  among  plants  could  only  be  recognised  after  the 
discovery  of  the  distinction  of  the  sexes  in  1744'.  The  honour 
of  this  great  discovery  belongs  to  Linna-us.  He  at  once 
comprehended  the  importance  of  the  subject,  and  even 
exaggerated  it,  as  we  shall  presently  see.  Linnanis  admitted 
that  cross-unions,  which  iiad  been  observed  for  centuries 
between  animals,  might  be  repeateil  between  i)lants.  And  he 
thus  explained  the  appearance  of  variegated  tulips  in  the 
midst  of  borders  originally  formed  of  uniformly  coloured 
llowers.  Observation  and  experiment  have  confirmed  the 
views  of  the  founder  of  the  natural  .sciences  again  and  again. 
.Moreover,  it  has  been  ob.served  that  the  crossing  may  become 
apparent  in  all  part.s  of  the  plant  by  a  nnxture  of  cliaractcrs 
Himiiar  to  that  exhibited  by  the  colouring  of  the  tulips. 
M.  Naudin,  among  others,  who,  during  one  year,  watched  the 
development  of  more  than  1200  gourd-s  saw  the  seeds  of  a 
single  fruit  rrproduro  all  the  rnrrs  contained   in  the  garden 


Crossiiii;-  of  Races  ami  Species.  65 

in  which  liis  observations  were  made,  Supcrfetation  had 
taken  phice.  It  is  a  fact  of  great  importance,  as  it  demon- 
strates the  eijiiality  of  action  enjoyed  by  the  pollen  of  all 
these  races,  which,  morphologically,  differ  so  widely  from 
each  other.  No  better  example  could  be  given  of  the  faculty 
of  crossing  heivxen  races. 

The  natural  and  spontaneous  production  of  mongrels 
among  animals  presents  the  same  characters.  Facilitated  by 
lucomotion  it  is  accomplished  every  day  in  our  houses,  our 
jHjultry-yards,  and  our  farms.  The  difficulty  does  not  consist 
in  the  accomplishment  of  the  cross  but  in  its  prevention,  and 
in  the  preservation  of  the  purity  of  the  race.  The  careful 
observations  made  by  Isidore  Geoffrey  at  the  Paris  Museum, 
have  shown  that  with  sheep,  dogs,  pigs,  and  fowls,  mongrels 
between  the  most  different  races  were  invaiiably  fertile. 
Here  again  the  phenomena  of  supcrfetation  was  often 
proved.  Bitches  produced,  by  males  of  several  races 
successively,  young  which  showed  three  or  four  distinct 
sources.  Here  the  Ciise  was  the  same  as  with  the  gourds  of 
M.  Naudin. 

We  see  that  man  has  found  no  difficulty  in  breeding 
mongrels,  and  tiiat,  when  he  has  wished  to  do  so  for  any 
purpose  whatever,  he  has  been  able  to  regulate  it  by  merely 
choosing  the  animal  or  plant.  This  kind  of  \mion  ha.s, 
indeed,  been  long  in  daily  practice  for  the  amelioration, 
modification,  and  diver.'^ification  of  the  living  beings  upon 
which  human  industry  is  exercised.  It  is  useless  to  insist 
iiptm  facts  which  are  known  to  all  gardeners  and  breeders, 
and  I  shall  confine  myself  to  one  remark,  the  importance 
of  which  will  be  understood  later. 

We  have  already  seen  that  in  the  endeavour  to  iterfcct  a 
vegetable  or  animal  race,  the  physiological  e(|uilibrium  has 
sometimes  been  destroyed  at  the  expense  of  the  reproductive 
power.  In  such  ca.ses,  crossing  with  another  race  which  is 
less  modified,  generally  revives  the  extinguished  fertility. 
For  example,  the  English  pigs  imported  into  the  mid<lle  of 
France    by   M.   de    (Jinostous    became   sterile    after   several 


66  The  I/itifian  Spccit's. 

generation.?.  Upon  cros.sing  tlicm  with  a  leaner  and  less 
perfect  local  race,  their  fertility  returned. 

All  these  facts,  and  their  inevitable  conse(iuencc.s,  have 
been  admitted  by  every  naturalist  who  has  studied  the 
question.  Even  Darwin  has  recognised  the  truth  of  them  in 
his  valuable  work  upon  the  Vanat'toii  of  Animals  and 
Plants.  At  that  time  he  confined  himself  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  crosses  between  some  races  of  plants  are  less  fertile 
than  between  others,  a  proposition  whicii  no  one  would  think 
of  denying.  He  has  gone  further  in  the  latest  editions  of 
his  work  upon  the  Origin  of  Species.  Without  bringing 
forward  clear  facts,  the  meaning  of  which  would  go  further 
than  the  wise  conclusions  he  had  previously  admitted,  he 
invokes  our  relative  ignorance  of  what  takes  place  among 
wild  varieties,  and  concludes  that  we  must  admit  that  the 
cros.ses  between  varieties  must  always  be  perfectly  fertile. 
This  is  one  of  those  appeals  to  the  unknown,  one  of  those 
arguments  where  even  our  ignorance  is  invoked  as  a  proof, 
w  hich  we  too  often  meet  with  in  Darwin,  who  is  often  carried 
;iw;iy  by  his  convictions,  I  shall  have  to  return  to  this  point, 
l)ut  I  here  make  the  statement  as  an  established  fact,  on  the 
authority  even  of  Darwin,  that  all  knoivn  facts  attest  the 
jx'i'fcct  fertilHy  of  mongrels. 

Finally,  the  formation  of  crosses  between  races,  or  tiie 
production  of  mongrels,  is  spontaneous,  and  may  bo  pro- 
moted by  man  without  the  least  difticulty  ;  the  results  are 
as  certain  as  those  with  the  union  of  individuals  of  tlie  same 
rare  ;  in  certain  ca.ses,  indeed,  fertility  is  increased  or  revived 
under  the  influence  of  this  crossing. 

Crosses  hctwi-en  species,  or  liyhrids,  will  exhibit  facts  of  an 
entirely  contrary  nature 

J II.  The  formation  nf  hybrids,  as  of  mongrels,  may  be 
either  natural  or  artificial. 

The  former  is  so  rare  that  eminent  naturalists  have 
(lotibtcd  its  reality.  There  are,  however,  according  to  M. 
Dccaisne,  a  K«'ore  of  well  proved  oxaniplcs  among  plants. 
What    is    this    nuiiilur    conipareil    with    the    thousands    of 


Mongrels  and  Hybrids.  67 

mongrels  proJuccJ  every  clay  uiuler  our  eyes.  And  yet 
the  niiiterial  comlitions  of  fertility  arc  identically  the  same 
with  races  a.s  with  species,  anil  our  botanical  gardens,  which 
group  luunbers  of  species  side  by  side,  fiicilitate  crossing  still 
more. 

Among  wild  animals  living  in  liberty  hybrids  are  still  more 
rare.  It  is  unknown,  for  example,  among  mammalia,  accord- 
ing to  Isidore  Geolfroy,  whose  experience  has  here  a  double 
value.  The  order  of  birds  alone  presents  some  facts  of  this 
kind,  nearly  all  of  which  are  in  the  order  of  Gallina-. 
Acconling  to  Valenciennes,  they  arc  unknown  among  fishes. 
In  domestication  and  captivity  spontaneous  crossing  between 
ilirterent  species  is  a  little  less  rare. 

The  intelligent  intervention  of  man  has  multiplied  unions 
of  this  kind  in  a  remarkable  manner,  especially  among 
plants,  but  without  being  able  to  extend  their  limits. 
Litinajus  thought  crossing  was  possible  between  species  of 
different  families.  But  in  17G1  Koebreuter  showed  that 
he  was  mistaken.  From  these  investigations,  which  were 
carried  on  for  twenty-seven  years,  and  from  those  of  M. 
Naudin,  his  worthy  rival,  it  appears  that  artificial  crossing 
between  species  of  different  families  never  succeeds,  and 
very  rarely  between  species  of  different  genera  ;  that  it  is 
dways  very  difficult,  and  demands  the  most  minute  pre- 
cautions to  insure  success ;  that  it  often  fails  between  species 
of  the  same  genus  closely  allied  in  appeai-ance,  and  finally, 
that  there  are  whole  families  among  which  hybrids  are  impos- 
sible. Amongst  the  latter  figures  the  family  of  the  cucur- 
bitaccae,  so  thoroughly  studied  by  M.  Naudin,  where  the 
most  jxMfcct  mongrels  were  produced  spontaneously.  We 
coidd  not  imagine,  evidently,  a  more  complete  contrast. 

This  contra.st  is  carried  into  the  minutest  details.  For 
example,  any  flower  which  has  in  the  least  possible  degree 
undergimc  the  action  of  pollen  of  its  own  species  becomes 
ab.<Nolutcly  insensible  to  the  action  of  pollen  of  a  different 
>p(cii's.  How  different  to  the  equality  of  action  disjdayed 
by  the  several  pollens  of  most  distant  races  ! 


68  The  Unman  Species. 

All  experimenters  agree  further  in  declaring  that  even  in 
the  unions  between  species  which  have  been  most  successful, 
the  fertility  is  constantly  diminished,  and  often  in  immense 
proportions.  The  head  of  the  Papaver  somnifera  generally 
contains  2000  seeds  or  more.  In  a  hybrid  of  this  species 
Goertner  only  found  si.x  which  had  been  matured ;  all  the  rest 
were  more  or  less  abortive.  Here  again,  what  a  contrast 
between  the  crossing  productive  of  such  fertility  in  M.  De 
Ginestous'  English  pigs. 

Hybridism  in  animals  presents  exactly  the  same  phenomena 
as  in  plants.  Man  has  been  able,  by  diverting  and  deceiving 
animal  instincts,  to  multiply  crosses  between  species.  But 
he  has  not  been  able  to  extend  the  very  narrow  limits  at 
wliich  these  phenomena  cea.se.  Not  one  fertile  \mion  has 
taken  place  between  dilferent  families  ;  they  arc  very  rare 
between  genera,  and  even  between  species  they  are  far  from 
numerous,  a  fact  the  more  remarkable  as  animal  hybridation 
is  an  ancient  institution.  The  mule  was  known  to  the 
Hebrews  before  the  time  of  David,  and  to  the  Greeks  in  the 
age  of  Homer.  T'd'ircs  and  musmons,  products  of  crossings 
between  the  he-goat  and  the  sheep  and  the  ram  with  the 
she-goat,  received  their  distinctive  names  from  the  Romans. 

The  uncertainty  of  the  result  is  another  point  of  resem- 
blance between  animal  and  vegetiible  hybrid.s.  The  same 
experiments  executed  with  the  same  care  anil  by  equally 
(liver  experimenters  have  sometimes  succeeded  and  some- 
times failed  without  any  apparent  cause.  Buffon  and  Dau- 
JHiisun  often  tried  to  reproduce  titires  and  nnismons.  Tliey 
sueceeded  twice,  while  Lsidore  GeoftVoy  has  invariably  faileil. 
The  formation  of  crosses  between  tiic  hare  and  the  rabbit, 
which  has  fre<(uently  been  attempted  in  various  parts  of  the 
^^hjbe,  apj)ear.s  only  to  have  been  successful  four  or  five  times 
at  the  most.  The  pretended  cross  between  the  camel  and 
the  <ironiedMry,  admitted  by  IhifTon  and  (jwoted  by  Nott,  is 
certainly  a  fal)le,  alter  the  <letJiils  which  M.  J)e  Khanikofll" 
kindly  gave  mc,  and  which  I  have  published  elsewhere.  Wc 
may,  therefore,  <lraw  this  conclusion  fiom  known  facts,  that 


JMongrcls  and  Hybrids.  69 

there  are  only  two  species  of  mammals,  the  ass  and  the 
horse,  the  crossing  of  which  is  almost  universally  and  invari- 
ably fertile. 

Finally,  crossing  between  specks,  or  hyhrldalton,  is  ex- 
tremely exceptional  among  plants  and  animals  when  left  to 
themselves  ;  man  can  only  produce  them  with  great  difficulty 
in  the  two  kingdoms,  and  then  only  between  a  very  limited 
number  of  species ;  when  he  has  succeeded,  the  fertility  is 
almost  constantly  diminished,  and  often  to  a  very  consider- 
able extent. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

CROSSING    BETWEEN    VEGETABLE    AND    ANIMAL    RACES    AND 
SPECIES;  MONGRELS   AND   HYBRIDS;   REALITY   OF   SPECIES. 

I.  From  the  very  first,  in  the  union  of  two  individuals 
belonging  to  different  stocks,  the  race  and  the  species  dis- 
play very  distinct  and  characteristic  plienomena.  We  shall 
now  see  this  opposition  as  strongly  marked  in  the  product  of 
these  unions  in  Tnongrels  and  hybrids. 

Several  questions  are  raised  by  the  mixed  nature  of  these 
btiiigs.  I  shall  confine  myself  to  those  which  refer  to  filia- 
tion, and  which  have  therefore  a  special  interest  for  us.  They 
may  be  stated  generally  as  follows  : — are  mongrel  races,  that 
is,  those  derived  from  hvo  distinct  races,  and  hybrid  races,  that 
i?  those  which  are  derived  from  the  crossing  of  hvo  species, 
formed  naturally,  or  can  they  be  obtained  artificially  ?  In 
other  -words,  do  mongrels  and  hybrids  retain,  during  an 
indefinite  number  of  generations,  the  faculty  of  reproducing 
and  transmitting  to  their  descendants  the  mixed  character 
they  inherited  from  the  first  parents  which  effected  the 
cross  ? 

II.  In  regard  to  mongrels  there  is  not  a  shadow  of  doubt. 
Facts  which  frc<[U('ntly  occur,  often  Avithout  our  interven- 
tion, and  sometimes  in  spite  of  our  precautions,  prove  again 
and  again  that  the  mongrels  of  tlic  first  generation  are  as 
I'trtile  as  tlie  parents,  and  transmit  cfpial  fertility  to  their 
(»ffspring.  Our  gardeners  and  breeders  always  take  advan- 
tage of  this  property  of  mongrels  in  order  to  vary,  modify 
or  anK'liorate  from  their  point  of  view  the  })lants  and 
animals  in  which  they  are  interested  ;  the  careful  experi- 
ments of  Buffon,  of  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire,  father  and  son,  and 


Crossing  beiivccn  Races.  71 

the  testimony  of  Darwin,  on  this  point  very  significant, 
prove  beyond  a  doubt  that  unions  between  different  races 
remain  fertile,  whatever  morphological  differences  there  may 
be  between  them.  I  shall  confine  myself  to  quoting  one 
example  from  Darwin.  The  niata  will  unite  indifferently 
in  both  senses  with  the  ordinary  ox,  and  the  offspring  is 
fertile. 

If  several  races  of  a  single  species  are  in  habitual  contact 
and  left  to  themselves,  they  will  intermix  in  every  degree. 
This  results  in  bastard  offspring,  devoid  of  definite  charac- 
ters, but  which,  when  methodically  studied,  would  lead 
through  insensible  shades  to  the  different  primitive  types. 
In  this  manner  our  street  dogs  and  cats  have  come  into 
existence,  which  remain  perfectly  fertile  in  spite  of  innu- 
merable crossings  of  every  kind. 

With  human  intervention  it  is  possible,  when  care  is 
taken,  to  regulate  the  crossing  between  two  races,  and  to 
obtain  a  mongrel  race.  After  a  few  oscillations  between 
the  paternal  and  maternal  types  it  becomes  consolidated 
and  settled.  But  whatever  constancy  it  may  have  acquired 
as  a  Avhole,  it  almost  always  happens  that  some  individuals 
reproduce,  to  a  varying  extent,  the  characters  of  one  of  the 
types  originally  crossed. 

This  phenomenon  is  designated  by  the  name  of  Atavism. 
It  sometimes  occurs  in  the  midst  of  a  race  considered  to 
be  perfectly  pure,  and  is  the  result  of  a  single  crossing 
several  generations  back.  Darwin  qtiotes  the  case  of  a 
breeder,  Avho  having  crossed  Ids  fowls  with  the  Malay  race, 
wished  afterwards  to  free  them  from  the  stransfe  blood. 
After  spending  forty  years  in  the  attempt,  he  is  still  un- 
successful, the  Malay  blood  always  reappearing  in  some  of 
his  fowls. 

In  animals  as  in  plants,  univcrsid,  free  and  indefinite 
fertility,  whether  between  themselves  or  between  all  the 
races  of  the  same  species,  is  one  of  the  characters  of 
mongrels.  Atavism  attests  the  physiological  bon<l  v.hich 
unites  all  niontrrels. 


72  The  Human  Species. 

III.  Ill  liybriils  we  shall  meet  witli  some  very  different 
phenomena. 

Let  u.s  first,  with  M.  Godron,  establish  the  fact  that  in 
the  vegetable  hybrid  the  physiological  equilibrium  is  de- 
stroyed in  favour  of  the  organs  conducive  to  the  life  of  the 
individual,  and  at  the  expense  of  those  conducive  to  the 
life  of  the  species.  The  stalk  and  leaves  are  always  deve- 
loped in  an  exaggerated  manner  relatively  to  the  flowers. 
'J'he  most  common  animal  hybrid,  the  mule,  is  an  entirely 
similar  case,  being  invariably  stronger,  more  robust,  more 
hardy  than  its  parents,  but  sterile. 

This  sterility  is  not  absolute,  however,  among  all  hybrids 
of  the  first  generation.  It  generally  affects  the  male  organs 
in  an  entirely  special  manner.  Koelreuter,  to  whom  we 
should  always  refer  when  treating  of  plants,  states  that  the 
anthers  scarcely  ever  enclose  veritable  pollen,  but  merely 
irregular  granulations.  It  was  not  quite  so  unusual  to  find 
ovules  in  good  condition  in  the  ovary.  Guided  by  these 
ol)servations,  Koelreuter  artificially  fertilised  hybrid  flowers 
with  pollen  from  the  male  species,  and  thus  obtained  a 
vegetable  qiuidroon.  By  continuing  this  process  he  soon 
brought  back  again  to  the  original  male  type  the  descen- 
dants of  the  first  hybrid,  Avhich  regained  all  their  generative 
faculties,  but  at  the  same  time  lost  all  trace  of  the  female 
type.  These  experiments  have  been  repeated  and  varied, 
but  always  with  the  same  result. 

In  a  small  number  of  hybrids  of  the  •  first  generation 
the  elements  which  characterise  the  two  sexes  remained 
faj)able  of  reproduction.  Nevertheless  the  fertility  is  always 
iiMinonsely  reduced.  From  liis  hybrids  of  the  datura,  M. 
Naudiii  only  obtained  five  or  six  fertile  seeds  from  each 
jtlant.  All  the  otJiLis  had  completely  failed,  or  were  without 
an  embryo.  The  capsules  them.selves  were  only  half  the 
iiortnal  si/.i-. 

If  two  (jf  these  first  hybrids  are  united  they  produce 
hybrids  of  the  second  generation.  In  most  cases,  however, 
tlif  latter  are  citlicr  sterile,  or  present   the  phciioiiK'non  of  a 


Hybridation — Disordei'cd  Variation.  73 

sjwntaneous  return  to  one  or  the  other  of  the  parent  types, 
or  to  both.  M.  Naudin  crossed  the  large-leaved  primrose 
with  the  iwimula  offi.cinal'is,  and  obtained  an  intermediate 
hybrid  between  tlie  two  species,  havingr  seven  fertile  seeds. 
When  these  were  sown  they  produced  three  primroses  of 
the  male  species,  three  of  the  female,  and  a  single  hybrid 
plant  which  was  perfectly  barren. 

In  some  still  rarer  cases  fertility  continues  during  several 
generations.  Then,  however,  a  curious  phenomenon  is  ex- 
hibited, called  by  M.  Naudin,  Avho  discovered  it,  Disordered 
variation.  With  the  Linaria  communis  and  the  Linaria 
'purpurea  he  produced  a  hybrid,  the  descendants  of  which 
he  was  able  to  follow  through  seven  generations,  in  each 
of  which  several  individuals  reverted  to  the  characters 
either  of  the  original  male  or  female.  The  others  neither 
resembled  the  primitive  types  nor  the  hybrid  resulting 
from  their  crossing,  nor  the  plants  of  which  they  were  the 
immediate  offspring,  nor  was  there  any  resemblance  between 
the  plants  themselves. 

Thus  the  crossing  does  not  produce  a  race,  even  in  cases 
where  it  allows  a  certain  amount  of  fertility  ;  it  only  produces 
varieties  incapable  of  transmitting  their  individual  characters. 
In  order  to  establish  a  series  of  generations  presenting  a 
certivin  amount  of  uniformity,  the  hybrid  must  lose  some  of 
its  mixed  characters,  and  resume  the  normal  livery  of  the 
species,  as  M.  Naudin  .says  ;  in  other  words,  it  must  return 
to  one  of  the  parent  types. 

IV.  The  same  facts  which  we  have  iust  noticed  amoiio- 
plants,  occur  also  among  animals.  We  must  observe  in  tiie 
first  place,  that  the  only  two  species,  the  crossing  of  which 
displays  anything  approaching  to  regular  fertility,  the  horse 
and  the  ass,  merely  produce  a  hybrid  almost  entirely  devoid 
of  fertility.  It  is  more  than  2000  yeare  since  Herodotus 
regarded  tlie  fertility  of  mules  as  a  prodigy,  and  Jilmost  1800 
years  since  Pliny  expressed  the  same  opinion. 

And  yet  in  .some  works  we  read  that  the  fertility  of  the 
mule  is  displayed  in  the  present  day  ;  that    it    often   propa- 


74  ^/'^  Iluniaji  Species. 

gates  in  liot  countries,  especially  in  Algeria.  The  true  value 
of  these  singular  assertions  \s\\\  be  recognised  if  we  recall  the 
effect  which  was  produced  in  1S28  upon  the  whole  Mussul- 
man population  of  Algeria  by  the  announcement  that  a  mule 
had  conceived  near  Biskra.  The  astonishment  was  general  ; 
the  Arabs  gave  themselves  up  to  long  fasts  to  conciliate  the 
wrath  of  heaven,  thinking  the  end  of  the  world  had  come. 
Fortunately  the  mule  miscarried  ;  but  long  afterwards  the 
Arabs  still  spoke  Avith  terror  of  this  event. 

If  this  fact  were  occasionally  repeated  in  Algeria  it  would 
never  have  produced  such  an  impression  upon  a  people  so 
curious  about  everything  connected  with  the  horse.  The 
impression  itself  proves  that  the  facts  are  in  our  days  similar 
to  what  they  were  in  the  time  of  Herodotii.s. 

Examples  of  fertility  in  the  hybrids  of  the  ass  and  the 
horse  have  never  been  observed  except  in  the  female  viule. 
There  is  not  a  single  known  example  in  the  male.  AVe 
meet  with  something  analogous  to  this  in  birds,  where  the 
sterility  of  certain  hybrids  is  less  absolute.  Thus  vertebrata 
arc  similarly  ati'ected  with  plants ;  and  in  their  case  also  the 
inequality  between  the  two  sexes  can  be  explained  by 
anatomical  and  microscopic  examination.  The  male  organs 
are  generally  but  slightly  (luveloj)cd,  even  the  essential 
elements  of  the  fertilising  liquid  undergo  alteration.  The 
female  organs  and  elements,  though  niodifu'd,  are  relatively 
unaffected. 

There  are  some  liybrids  among  animals,  as  among  plants, 
which  are  not  subject  to  the  general  law.  Among  birds  in 
particular,  a  certain  numl)er,  always  however  very  limited, 
of  more  or  less  fertile  hybrids  have  been  obtained.  But, 
with  the  malrs  the  faculty  of  reproduction  is  constantly 
weakonc<l,  and  habitually  «lisappears  before  the  usual  age; 
the  female  lays  more  rarely,  and  the  eggs  are  fewer  in 
numb(;r,  and  very  often  clritr.  This  is  an  exact  repetition  of 
what  took  i)lace  in  RI.  Naudin's  datura  seeds,  which  he 
observed  to  become  abortive  or  devoid  of  embryo. 

We   must,  moreover,  exclude   from   the  nuiiibor  of  fertile 


Fcrtilily  of  Hybrids.  75 

hybrids  a  certain  number  of  examples  quoted  by  some 
authors,  and  which  statements  are  proved  by  facts,  now 
either  better  known  or  better  appreciated,  to  have  an  erro- 
neous foundation.  Thus  Hellenius  thought  he  had  crossed 
tlie  Finnish  ram  with  the  Sardinian  doc,  but  he  had  con- 
foimded  the  then  Uttle  known  moufflon  with  the  roebuck. 
He  thus  obtained  a  mongrel,  which  having  been  crossed  for 
two  generations- with  the  male  parent,  returned  to  the  type 
of  the  latter.  We  have  here  evidently  only  a  companion 
experiment  to  those  of  Koclrcuter,  which  resulted  in  a  re- 
version of  the  hybrid  to  the  male  type  under  a  similar  series 
of  crossings. 

There  are,  however,  some  examples  among  birds  and 
among  mammalia  of  hybrids  which  have  propagated  inicr  se 
for  several  jjenerations,  four  or  five  at  the  most.  The  cele- 
])rated  experiment  of  Buffou  upon  the  crossing  of  the  dog 
with  the  w'olf  in  particular,  belongs  to  this  order  of  facts. 
It  was  unfortunately  interrupted  by  the  death  of  the  great 
naturalist  at  the  fourth  generation.  It  is  clear  that  there  is 
nothing  here  which  does  not  perfectly  agree  with  our  ob- 
servations upon  hybrid  plants,  which,  although  exceeding  this 
number  of  generations,  have  never  produced  hybrid  races. 

Fertility,  and  the  number  of  succeeding  generations  is 
increased,  when  a  superiority  is  given  to  one  of  the  crossed 
species  over  the  other.  This  fact  has  been  recognised  in 
plants,  and  we  meet  with  it  again  in  animals.  By  crossing 
and  rccrossing  in  a  fixed  manner  the  goat  and  the  sheep, 
hybrids  called  chabins  are  obtained  which  possess  three- 
eighths  of  the  paternal  and  five-eighths  of  the  maternal 
blood.  These  animals  produce  a  fleece  much  valued  in 
South  America,  and  are  the  source  of  real  industry.  They 
can  be  maintained  for  several  generations,  but  at  length  all 
tiic  cro.ssings  to  which  they  owe  their  existence  must  be 
recommenced,  they  having  returned  to  the  parental  types, 
'like  plants,'  as  M.  Gay  said. 

This  proportion — three-eighths  to  five-eighths — appears 
to  be  very  favourable   to   the   maintenance  of  hybrid   races  ; 


76  The  IIiLDian  Species. 

it  is  the  proportion  which  characterises  the  famous  leporidcs, 
the  result  of  the  crossing  of  the  hare  and  the  rabbit. 
But  can  these  hybrids,  of  which  so  much  lias  been  said, 
maintain  themselves  Avithout  reverting  to  the  parental 
types  ?  M.  Roux  evidently  believed  it,  and  it  is  still  asserted 
by  M.  Gayot.  But  the  testimony  of  those  who  have  esta- 
blished and  impugned  their  assertions  leaves  scarcely  any 
room  for  doubt.  Isidore  Geoffrey,  who  had  at  first  believed 
in  their  fixity,  and  had  spoken  of  it  as  a  conquest,  did  not 
hesitate  afterwards  to  admit  the  reversion.  The  fact  has 
been  established  in  the  Jardin  d'Acclimatation,  and  M.  Roux 
liimself,  upon  the  assertion  of  M.  Faivre,  appears  to  have 
abandoned  his  previous  assertions.  The  ■  observations  and 
experiments  made  by  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Paris 
clearly  sliow  that  the  lcj)orides,  sent  or  presented  by  the 
Itroeders  themselves,  had  entirely  reverted  to  the  rabbit  type. 
L;istly,  M.  Sanson,  discussing  the  anatomical  side  of  the 
•  [uestion,  has  arrived  at  the  same  conclusions.  Moreover, 
whoever  will  credit  the  observations  made  by  M.  Naudin 
upon  the  Linarias,  will  easily  recognise  the  reversion  and 
the  disordered  valuation  exhibited  by  tlie  leporides  of  the 
Abbe  Cugliari,  who  was  the  first  to  ol)tain  a  fertile  crossing 
between  the  hare  and  the  raljbit. 

These  phenomena  appear  in  an  e(|u;dly  well  marked 
iiiaiincr  in  the  result  of  the  cro.ss  between  the  silknioth 
{lioinbi/x  cyntlua)  and  the  castor-oil  sijkmoth  {Boiabijx 
arrindia),  obtained  by  M.  Guerin  Mcnevillc.  The  hybrids 
of  the  first  g(;nerati()n  were  alintjst  exactly  intermediate 
between  the  two  species,  and  resembled  each  other.  \\\  the 
second  this  uniformity  disappeared,  in  the  third  the  dissinii- 
l.irity  ha<l  increased,  some  of  the  insects  having  rejissumed 
all  tlu;  characters  of  the  paternal  or  maternal  types.  In  the 
seventh  generation  lliis  <  injous  experiment  was  destroyed  by 
ifhneinnons.  lint,  as  AI.  N'alei*,  their  intelligent  breeder,  told 
nie,  ne-arly  all  the  in(»ths  had  returned  to  the  type  of  the 
liombyx  arrindia.  TIk;  resemblance  tf)  what  took  place  in 
the  ca.sc  of  M.  Naiiilin's  liinari.e  is  here  complete. 


Hybridation — The  Phenomenon  of  Reversion.   77 

V.  The  phenomenon  of  the  reversion  of  tlie  descendants 
of  a  liybiid  to  the  paternal  or  maternal  type,  or  disordered 
variation,  has  given  rise  to  some  interpretations  which 
it  will  be  well  to  rectify,  and  has  also  raised  important 
([iicstions. 

The  attempt  has  been  made  to  assimilate  the  latter  to  the 
oseiUations  presented  by  mongrels  for  some  generations. 
But  daily  experience  should  suffice  to  refute  tliis  opinion. 
Iheeders  are  crossing  races  every  day  for  some  purpose  or 
other,  and  they  would  never  do  so  if  the  crossing  were  to 
result  in  the  production  of  a  disorder  which  would  exhibit 
the  smallest  resemblance  to  that  displayed  by  the  Linarice  of 
M.  Naudin,  and  the  silkmoths  of  Guerin  Meneville.  They 
expect,  however,  a  few  irregularities  more  or  less  marked,  in 
the  first  generations,  but  they  know  that  the  race  will  soon 
settle  while  the  disorder  would  only  increase  if  the  crossing 
had  taken  place  between  species. 

Again,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  consider  the  facts 
of  atavism  and  reversion  as  identical.  There  is,  however,  a 
fundamental  difterence  between  them,  for  the  mongrel  which 
by  atavism  reassumes  the  characters  of  one  of  its  paternal 
ancestors,  for  example,  still  preserves  its  mixed  nature. 
This  is  proved  by  the  possibility  of  its  offspring  of  the  first 
or  second  generation  reproducing,  on  the  contrary,  the  es- 
sential traits  of  its  own  maternal  ancestors.  Darwin  gives 
many  examples  of  facts  of  this  nature  from  the  agricultural" 
history  of  his  country.  One  of  the  best  to  quote  is  that 
furnished  by  the  genealdgy  of  n,  family  of  dogs  observed  by 
(Jirou  de  Buzareingius.  These  animals  were  crosses  between 
the  setter  and  spaniel.  Now  one  male,  a  setter  to  all  ap- 
pearances, united  with  a  female  of  pure  setter  breeil,  pro- 
duced spaniels,  which  makes  it  evident  that  the  latter  blood 
was  by  no  means  annihilated,  and  that  the  return  to  the 
setter  type  was  only  a])parent 

It  is  dilTerent  in  the  cases  of  reversion  displayed  by  hybrids, 
for  one  of  the  two  bloods  is  irrevocably  expelled.  We  are 
justified  in  making  this  assertion   in  the  case  of  mammalia, 


78  TJic  Human  Species. 

by  experience  extending  as  far  back  as  the  Roman  period, 
ur  at  leiist  as  far  as  the  seventeenth  century.  Titires  and 
tnusnions  have  never  since  those  times  had  offspHug  afeded 
by  atavism.  A  ram  and  sheep  have  never  been  known  to 
produce  a  kid,  nor  a  male  and  female  goat  to  produce  a  lamb. 
It  is  the  same  with  plants,  according  to  statements  with 
which  M.  Naudin  has  kindly  furnished  me. 

Far  from  being  similar,  the  phenomena  of  atavism  and 
reversion  are  absolutely  different  and  characteristic,  the  one 
of  crossing  between  races,  the  other  of  crossing  between 
species.  The  first  proclaims  the  persistency  of  the  physio- 
logical connections  between  all  the  representatives,  more  or 
less  modified,  of  one  species  ;  the  second  proves  the  complete 
rupture  of  the  same  connections  between  the  descendants  of 
two  species  accidentally  brought  into  contact  by  the  promoter 
of  the  liybridism. 

VI.  In  none  of  the  preceding  cases  has  hybridism,  no 
matter  in  what  degree,  given  rise  to  a  series  of  individuals 
descended  the  one  from  the  other,  and  preserving  the  same 
characters.  An  exception  is,  however,  known  to  this  general 
fact.  It  is  unique,  and  is  produced  in  the  vegetable  kingdom 
from  the  crossing  of  wheat  with  yKijilops  ovata. 

The  hybrid  of  the  first  generation  from  these  two  species 
is  sometimes  produced  naturally,  and  was  regarded  by 
Hetpiien  as  a  species.  Fabre,  who  frctpiently  met  with  it  in 
liie  fields,  considered  it  to  be  the  commencement  of  the 
Iransmutation  of  the  ^Egilops  into  wheat.  Aftenvards  a 
quadroon  hybrid,  accidentally  obtained  and  eultivated  during 
several  years,  gave  him  descendants  resembling  the  beardless 
'whait  of  the  South.  It  was  the  result  o(  reversion.  Fabre, 
however,  who  did  not  rec(»gniso  the  hybrid,  thought  it  was  a 
transmutation,  and  flattered  liiinscir  (hat  he  had  discovered 
wild  wheat  in  the  ./Kgilops. 

M.  Godron,  on  the  contrary,  unthrstood  the  nature  of  the 
phenomenon,  and  demonstrated  it  experimentally.  lie 
(•ros.scd  the  yEgihjps  and  the  wheat,  and  obtained  the  first 
j.lant  of  Iletjuien,   the   /Ejilops  tridroldcs    of   Fabre.     He 


Characters  of  Hybrids.  79 

ac^ain  crossed  this  hybrid  with  the  true  wheat,  and  repro- 
duced the  pretended  artificial  wlieat  of  the  MontpeUier 
botanist.     He  gave  to  it  tlie  name  of  j£<jUo2m  spelhvfoi^iis. 

It  is  this  latter  form,  having  as  we  see  three-fourths  of  the 
true  wheat,  and  a  fourth  of  the  iEgilops,  that  M.  Godron  has 
cultivated  at  Nancy  since  1857.  The  clever  naturalist  who  has 
produced  it,  believes  that  he  has  not  had  one  case  of  reversion 
like  those  at  MontpeUier  and  those  of  Fabre.  But  at  the  same 
time  he  informs  us  that  the  most  minute  and  special  precau- 
tions alone  can  preserve  this  artificial  plant.  The  ground 
must  be  prepared  with  the  greatest  care,  and  each  seed 
placed  by  hand  in  the  desired  position.  If  put  into  the 
ground  carelessly,  or  scattered  over  the  bed,  the  seeds  never 
germinate.  M.  Godron  considered  that  the  .^gilops  spelta3- 
formis  would  entirely  disappear,  perhaps  in  a  single  3'ear,  if 
left  to  itself. 

Vll.  Finally,  the  characters  of  hybrids  are  :  infertility, 
as  a  general  rule,  and,  iri  the  exceptions,  a  very  limited 
fertility  ;  series  suddenly  cut  short  either  by  infertility,  by 
disordered  variation,  or  by  reversion  without  atavism. 

The  iEgilops  triticoides  alone  seems  to  stand  in  opposition 
to  all  other  known  facts.  This  exception  is  undoubtedly 
remarkable,  but  does  not  in  any  way  impair  our  general  con- 
clusions. A  product  of  human  industry,  this  hybrid  plant 
only  exists  by  virtue  of  the  same  industry,  and  cannot,  from 
any  point  of  view,  bo  compared  to  the  succession  of  mongrel 
individuals  which  arc  unceasingly  propagated  without  our 
aiil,  and  in  spite  of  our  precautions,  in  the  midst  of  our 
animal  and  vegetable  races. 

"But,"  say  those  writers  who  deny  the  reality  of  a  distinc- 
tion iM'twcon  species  and  race,  "  wiiat  man  has  done  nature 
must  be  able  to  do  also,  for  she  governs  space  and  time,  and 
is  therefore  more  powerful  than  man."  This  form  of  argu- 
ment rests  upon  a  confusion  of  ideas  and  a  strange  neglect  of 
the  most  ordinary  facts. 

Most  true,  nature  is  more  powerful  than  man  in  certain 
cases  and  for  certain  ends,  but  man  also  has  his  domain,  in 


8o  TJic  Human  Species. 

•which  lie  is  much  superior  to  nature.  Natural  forces  act  in 
virtue  of  blind  and  necessary  laws,  the  result  of  which  is 
constant.  Now  man  has  ac(iuired  the  knowk-dge  of  these 
laws,  he  has  made  use  of  them  to  const raiu  and  master  the 
natural  forces  oue  after  another,  he  now  knows  how  to 
exafTfjerate  some  and  to  weaken  others.  In  this  manner  he 
changes  their  resultants,  and  obtains  products  which  nature 
herself  could  ncjt  realise.  Give  to  the  latter  all  the  time  and 
.space  that  you  will,  she  would  never  be  able  either  to  produce 
or  preserve  potassium  or  sodium  iu  a  metallic  form  ;  in  spite 
of  the  physico-chemical  forces,  or  rather  by  directing  them, 
man  has  obtained  and  preserved  these  two  metals,  as  he 
has  obtained  and  preserved  the  ^gilops  triticoides,  which  is 
destroyed  by  the  inflexibility  of  natural  forces  as  soon  as  it 
is  exposed  to  their  actitni. 

VIII.  The  infertility,  or,  if  you  will,  the  restricted  and 
rapidly  limited  fertility  between  species,  and  the  impossi- 
bility of  natural  forces,  when  left  to  themselves,  produciug 
scries  of  intermediary  beings  between  two  given  specific 
types,  is  one  of  those  general  facts  which  we  call  a  law.  This 
fact  has  an  importance  in  the  organic  world  e(iual  to  that 
rightly  attributed  to  attraction  in  the  sidereal  world.  It  is 
by  virtue  of  the  latter  that  the  celestial  bodies  preserve  their 
resj)ective  distances,  and  complete  their  orbits  in  the  admir- 
able order  revealed  by  astronomy.  The  lav}  of  the  sterility 
o/«/)eciVs  produces  the  same  result,  and  maintains  between 
Kpeciesand  bc-twcen  different  groups  in  animals  and  plants  all 
those  relations,  which,  in  the  palajontological  ages,  as  well  as  in 
our  own,  form  the  marvelhjus  whole  of  the  Ortjanlc  Empire. 

Imagine  the  suj)pression  of  the  laws  which  govern  attrac- 
tion in  the  luMivens,  and  what  chaos  would  immediately  bo 
the  rcHult.  Supf)resH  upon  earth  the  law  of  crossing,  and  the 
confuKion  wouM  be  immense.  It  is  scarcely  po.s.sible  to  say 
where  it  would  stop.  After  a  few  generations  the  grou|».s 
wliich  wu  call  genera,  families,  orders,  and  cla.sse.s  would 
most  certainly  have  disappeared,  and  the  branches  also 
wouM  rapidly  have  become  afTected.    It  is  clear  that  only  a  few 


Reality  of  Species.  8 1 

centuries  "would  elapse  before  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms  fell  into  the  most  complete  disorder.  Now  order 
has  existed  in  both  kingdoms  since  the  epoch  when  organised 
beings  first  peopled  the  solitudes  of  our  globe,  and  it  could 
only  have  been  established  and  preserved  by  virtue  of  the 
im])ossibility  of  a  fusion  of  species  with  each  other  through 
inditVcrently  and  indefinitely  fertile  crossings. 

IX.  There  are  some  writers,  very  often  entirely  unac- 
quainted with  the  natural  sciences,  who,  labouring  under  the 
most  varied  prejudices,  especially  that  of  exaggerating  the 
transmutation  doctrines  which  I  shall  presently  discuss,  have 
denied  the  realidj  of  species ;  they  aftirm  that  there  are  no 
serious  barriers  between  the  groups  designated  by  this  term, 
and  have  compared  it  in  a  more  or  less  formal  manner  to  the 
groups  always  somewhat  arbitrarily  called  genera,  tribes, 
families,  orders,  etc.  Though  only  a  brief  recapitulation, 
the  preceding  facts  would  be  sufiicient  to  answer  them.  It 
is,  however,  necessary  to  mention  the  principal  objections 
which  are  brought  forward  against  such  ideas,  and  to  shew 
how  they  may  be  refuted. 

1st,  It  is  useless  to  take  any  notice  of  the  good  humoured 
or  malicious  banU-r,  of  the  raillery  and  sarcjism  too  often 
made  use  of  by  some  writers  against  those  who  admit  the 
reality  of  species.  It  is  evident  that  those  who  employ  such 
weapons  do  not  address  themselves  to  men  of  science,  but 
appeal  directly  to  the  passions.  We  cannot  sufficiently 
-  X press  our  regret  at  seeing  men  of  undoubted  merit  resort- 
ing to  such  means. 

L'nd.  At  the  present  time,  perhaps  more  than  ever,  those 
who  believe  in  species  are  reproached  with  being  orthodox :  I 
could  never  myself  understand  why  there  should  be  this 
mixture  of  scientific  discussions  and  do;rmatic  and  antido^- 
matic  polemics. 

Jird.  I  shall,  moreover,  refuse  to  dispute  with  those  who, 
njecting  on  their  own  authority  a  whole  century  of  work 
accompli.shcd  by  the  greatest  natumlists,  and  by  a  number 
of  men  distinguished  in  botanv  and  zoolo<;v,  declare  that  it 


82  The  Hiunan  Species. 

is  useless  to  try  and  discover  what  species  and  race  are,  and 
laugh  at  those  who  take  the  troul)lc  to  do  so.  I  say  the 
same  to  those  ^Yho  regard  species  and  race  as  more  or  less 
arbitrary  groups  which  may  be  compared  to  the  genus, 
family  and  order.  It  will  be  enough  to  remark  that  they 
themselves  incessantly  employ  the  word  sj^ccies  and  race,  and 
we  must  not  be  surprised  if  they  take  one  thing  for  the 
other, 

4th.  After  what  we  have  said,  discussion  is  useless  with 
those  naturalists  who  only  base  the  distinction  of  species 
upon  external  characters.  They  forget  all  the  experiments 
made  from  Buffon  to  the  two  Geoffreys,  from  Koelreuter  to 
M.  Naudin ;  they  forget  the  innumerable  observations  made 
in  our  orchards,  gardens  and  stables.  To  refuse  to  abandon 
morphological  considerations,  and  to  neglect  the  data  of 
physiology  and  the  lessons  of  filiation,  is  clearly  going 
further  back  than  Ray  and  Tourncfort,  and  all  discussion 
becomes  impossible. 

5th.  Some  of  our  opponents  allow  that  things  are  now  what 
we  think  them  to  be.  "  But,"  say  they, "  it  is  po.ssible  that  at 
some  other  time  it  was  different."  What  answer  can  be 
given  to  those  who  base  their  arguments  upon  possibilities'! 
Is  modern  science  composed  of  possibilities  ? 

Gth.  Naturalists  have  often  been  reproached  with  multiiily- 
ing  the  definitions  of  species.  From  the  variety  of  terms  em- 
]>loyed  by  them  in  expressing  idea.s,  it  has  been  inferred  that 
they  were  not  agreed  as  to  the  ideas  themselves.  We  may 
cjusily  convince  ourselves  of  their  mistake,  if  we  give  these 
definitions  a  careful  reconsideration.  We  shall  see  that  their 
.several  authors  have  only  endeavoured  to  express  with 
greater  clearness  and  precision,  the  double  idea  rcsidting 
from  the  facts  of  resemblance  and  filiation.  In  reality, 
ilivergencies  oidy  begin  where  experiment  and  observation 
coa.se.  It  is  this  which  caused  Isidore  Geoffroy,  however 
interested  he  might  be  in  discussions  of  this  nature,  to 
remark — "  Such  arc  Species  and  Races,  not  only  for  one  of 
the  schools  into  which  naturalists  are  divided,  but  for  all." 


Reality  oj  Species.  83 

7tli.  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  distinction  of  species  and 
race  rests  upon  a  syllogistic  circle ;  that  naturalists  decided 
a  'priori  uj)on  calling  all  those  groups  incapable  of  inter- 
crossing, species,  and  all  those  amongst  which  crossing  was 
possible,  races.  To  appeal  to  the  difference  of  the  phe- 
nomena presented  by  the  hybrids  and  mongrels  is  therefore 
only  solving  the  question  by  the  question.— This  is  an 
historical  error.  Naturalists  came  into  contact  with  species, 
races  and  varieties,  before  they  gave  names  to  them.  It 
was  by  experiment  and  observation  that  they  learnt  to 
distinguish  them.  Knoxdedfje  of  facts  preceded  termin- 
ology. 

8th.  Again,  it  has  been  said,  that  the  discussions  which  are 
always  arising  between  naturalists  as  to  whether  a  species 
should  be  preserved  or  regarded  as  a  race,  as  to  the  genus, 
family,  order,  and  sometimes  the  class  in  which  it  should  be 
placed,  betray  a  Avant  of  precision  in  general  ideas. — Those 
wiio  talk  in  this  manner  forget  the  immense  number  of 
species  and  races  accepted  and  classified  without  discussion. 
They  shut  their  eyes  to  all  cases  except  those  in  which 
divergences  of  opinion  occur.  If,  however,  facts  of  this 
nature  prove  anything  against  a  science  and  its  fundamental 
data,  then  even  mathematical  theorems  must  be  considered 
as  wanting  in  precision,  for  there  are  disputes  among 
mathematicians. 

9th.  I  liave  already  n.'plied  to  the  arguments  drawn  from 
the  fertility  of  certain  hybrids  by  showing  to  what  it  is 
reduced.  Writers  who  insist  upon  this  point  invariably 
forget  the  lesson  taught  us  by  disordered  variation  and 
reversion  without  atavism.  I  regret  being  obliged  to  place 
among  them  Darwin,  who,  in  his  later  writings,  has  shewn 
much  less  reserve  than  in  his  earlier  publication.s.  In  the 
last  edition  of  his  book,  he  ([uotes  what  I  have  said  of  the 
cross  between  the  Bombyx  cynthia  and  the  Bombyx  arrindia  ; 
he  speaks  of  the  number  of  generations  obtained,  but  ho 
forgets  to  mention  that  disordered  variation  appeared  in  the 
.second  generation,  and  that  reversion  to  one  of  the  parental 


$4  The  Ilimian  Species. 

t3pe.s  -svas  almost  complete  at  the  tenniuation  of  the 
experiment. 

X.  Species  is  then  a  reality. 

Let  us  take  a  group  of  individuals  more  or  less  similar,  but 
always  capable  of  contracting  fertile  unions,  and  let  us,  with 
^r.  Chevreul,  trace  it  in  imagination  to  its  origin.  We  shall 
see  it  divided  into  families,  each  of  which  will  have  risen 
either  mediately  or  immediately  from  one  pair  of  parents. 
We  shall  see  that  the  number  of  these  families  decrease  at 
each  generation,  and  rising  still  higher  we  shall  at  length 
find  the  initial  term  of  a  single  2)^'i'initive  j^di^'. 

Has  this  really  been  the  case  ?  Has  each  species  indeed 
arisen  from  one  single  pair,  or  have  several  pairs,  resembling 
each  other  perfectly  both  morphologically  and  physiologically, 
appeared  simultaneously  or  successively?  These,  arc  quest  to  )i8 
of  fact  which  science  neither  can  nor  ought  to  approach,  for 
neither  experiment  nor  observation  is  able  to  furnish  us  with 
the  smallest  data  requisite  for  the  solution. 

But  what  science  may  affirm  is  that  from  all  appearances 
each  species  has  had,  as  point  of  departure,  a  single  piiniitive 
pair. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

CROSSING    BKTWEEN   HUMAN    GROUPS. — UNITY    OF    THE 
HUMAN    SPECIES. 

I,  We  now  know  what  arc  species  anil  race ;  the  plieno- 
nioua  exhibited  by  mongrels  and  hybrids  furnish  us  with 
an  experimental  means  of  distinguishing  them.  AVe  can, 
therefore,  now  reply  to  the  question  which  has  necessitated 
this  discussion :  Are  there  one  or  many  human  species  ? 
Are  the  human  groups  races  or  species  ? 

Unless  we  pretend  that  man  alone  of  all  organised  beings 
is  free  from  the  laws  which,  in  every  other  case,  govern  and 
regulate  the  laws  of  reproduction,  and  consequently,  unless 
we  make  him  a  solitary  exception  precisely  in  that  order  of 
facts  which  most  closely  unites  all  other  beings,  we  shall  be 
forced  to  admit  that  he  also  obeys  the  laws  of  crossing. 

Thus,  if  the  human  groups  represent  a  more  or  less  con- 
siderable number  of  sixxies,  we  ought  to  prove  in  the  cro.ss- 
ings  of  their  species  the  existence  of  the  characteristic  pheno- 
mena of  hybridism.  If  these  groups  are  only  races  of  a  single 
species,  wc  ought,  in  crossings  between  them,  to  meet  with 
the  phenomena  exhibited  by  mongrels. 

II.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  recall  what  nearly  four  cen- 
turies of  experience  and  observation  have  taught  us.  It  may 
be  recapitulated  in  a  very  few  words. 

Since  (Jolombus  conunenced  the  era  of  great  geographical 
discoveries,  the  White,  the  highest  division  of  mankind,  has 
penetrated  to  almost  every  part  of  the  globe.  He  has  every- 
wiiere  met  human  groups  which  differed  considerably  from 
himself  in    every    kind    of    character;    he    has    everywhere 


86  The  Hnvum  Species. 

mixed  with  tliem,  and  mixed  races  have  everywhere  sprung 
up  in  his  track. 

Further  still,  thanks  to  an  institution,  detestable  indeed, 
but  the  results  of  which  have  been  favourable  to  anthro- 
pology, the  experiment  is  complete.  The  White  has  en- 
slaved the  Negro  and  taken  him  away  with  him  to  all 
parts  of  the  globe,  and  wliere  the  local  races  have  con- 
sented to  intermix  with  the  enslaved  race,  in  every  case 
they  have  produced  mixed  races  of  this  inferior  division. 
In  America  the  Zamho  is  born  side  by  side  with  the 
Mulatto  and  the  Mamaluco. 

This  crossing  commenced  less  than  four  centuries  ago,  and 
some  time  has  elapsed  since  M.  d'Omalius  estimated  that 
mixed  races  constituted  at  least  -„'u  ^^  the  entire  population 
of  the  globe,  and  he  emphatically  declared  that  he  had  only 
taken  the  half-breeds  of  extreme  races  into  consideration. 

In  South  America,  where  Whites,  Blacks  and  natives 
have  lonji  been  in  contact  and  have  interminfrled  more 
freely,  there  are  whole  States  in  which  half-breeds  are  in 
the  majority,  and  in  which  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  find 
a  native  of  pure  blood. 

Have  subterfuges  or  precautions  been  necessary  to  form 
these  unions  and  to  insure  the  fertility  of  the  offspring? 
Quite  the  contrary.  The  tyranny  of  the  Whites,  the  crimes 
of  slavery,  afford  quite  sufHcient  proof  that  in  this  case  fer- 
tility was  not  dependent  upon  circumstances,  but  simply 
\ipon  the  physical  connections  existing  between  all  men 
from  the  lowest  of  the  Negi-oes  to  the  first  of  the  Whites. 

Has  such  facility,  such  certainty  as  this  been  experienced 
in  the  ])r(Kluction  of  chabins  and  leporides  ? 

If  anothtT  proof  were  necessary  of  the  facility  with  which 
human  grouj)s  intercross,  it  n)ight  be  found  in  one  of  those 
testimonies  the  value  of  which  is  undisputed  because  they 
give  the  result  of  a  daily  experience.  In  l.Sfil,  the  Cali- 
fornian  IcgiHlature  declared  that  any  white  person  convicted 
of  having  cohabited  witli  or  married  a  Negro,  Mulatto, 
Chinese  or  Indian,  had  fi>rfeited  all   his  rights,  and  became 


Unity  of  tJic  I  Indian  Species.  Sj 

subject  to  all  the  constitutional  incapacities  imposed  upon 
men  of  colour.  The  local  press  announced  very  plainly  that 
the  object  of  this  measure  was  the  prevention  of  the  fusion 
and  amalgamation  of  the  races. 

The  Californian  legislature  acted  on  this  occasion  like  the 
proprietor  of  a  Hock  of  pure  breed  which  he  is  anxious  to 
keep  free  from  all  mixture.  It  was  even  more  severe, 
ejecting  from  legal  society,  not  only  the  offspring  of  the 
cross,  but  also  the  transgressing  parents  of  the  white  race. 

Do  not  our  breeders  take  similar  precautions  in  the  case 
of  races  only,  and  not  in  the  case  of  species  ? 

Far  from  being  sterile,  unions  between  human  groups 
apparently  the  most  distinct  are  sometimes  more  fertile 
than  those  between  individuals  taken  from  the  same 
group.  "  Hottentot  women,"  says  Le  Vaillant,  "  with 
husbands  of  their  own  race  have  three  or  four  children. 
With  Negroes  this  number  is  tripled,  and  it  is  still  further 
increased  with  Whites."  M.  Hombron,  during  four  years 
which  he  spent  in  Brazil,  Chili  and  Peru,  studied  this 
phenomenon  in  r.  large  number  of  families.  "  I  am  able 
to  state,"  he  says,  "  that  unions  of  Whites  with  American 
women  have  given  the  liighest  average  of  births.  Next 
come  the  Negro  and  Negress.  And  thirdly  the  Negio 
and  the  American  woman."  Unions  between  Americans 
themselves  gave  the  lowest  average. 

Thu.s,  the  maximum  of  fertility  is  here  presented  in  a  case 
which  would  constitute  a  hybridisn>  in  the  opinion  of  poly- 
geni.sts  ;  the  minimum  is  exhibited  between  individuals  of 
the  same  group,  and  it  is  with  the  woman  belonging  to  the 
latter,  that,  owing  to  the  cross,  the  maximum  is  obtained. 

These  facts  are  significant.  In  no  case  of  crossing  be- 
tween species  ha.s  fertility  been  observed  to  increa.se;  on 
the  contrary  it  is  almost  always  drminished,  and  often,  as 
we  have  seen  above,  in  an  immense  proportion.  Crossings 
l>etween  races  have  alone  presented  facts  analogous  to  those 
mentioned  i)y  Hombron  and  Le  Vaillant. 

III.  Thu.s,  in  every  ca.se  crossings  between  human  groups 
5 


88  The  Human  Species. 

exhibit  the  phenomena  ch.aracteristic  of  mongrels  and  never 
those  of  hybrids. 

Therefore,  these  human  groups,  liowever  different  they 
may  be,  or  appear  to  be,  are  only  races  of  one  and  the  same 
species  and  not  distinct  species. 

Therefore,  there  is  but  one  hunmn  species,  taking  this 
term  species  in  the  acceptation  employed  when  speaking  of 
animals  and  plants. 

IV.  Anyone  who  refuses  to  accept  these  conclusions  must 
either  deny  all  the  facts  of  which  it  is  the  necessary  conse- 
quence, or  reject  the  method  employed  in  the  examination 
and  appreciation  of  these  facts. 

But  these  facts  are  borrowed  entirely  either  from  scientific 
experiments,  made  without  any  discussion  or  controversy  by 
men  of  the  highest  authority,  or  drawn  from  the  innumerable 
experiments  which  are  daily  practised  by  agi'iculturalists, 
horticulturalists,  and  breeders.  It  is  therefore  very  difficult 
to  deny  them. 

As  to  the  method,  it  is  evident  tliat  it  rests  entirely  upon 
the  identity  of  the  general  laws  governing  all  organised  and 
living  beings.  Few  true  men  of  .science  will,  I  am  sure, 
refuse  to  admit  such  a  starting  point  as  this. 

Now  I  wish  that  candid  men,  who  are  free  from  party- 
Rpirit  or  prejudices,  would  follow  me  in  this  view,  and  study 
t'oT  themselves  all  these  facts,  a  few  of  which  I  have  only 
touched  upon,  and  I  am  perfectly  convinced  that  they  will, 
with  the  great  men  of  whom  I  am  only  the  disciple, — with 
Linnxus,  Kuffon,  Lamarck,  Cuvicr,  Geoffroy,  Humboldt  and 
Muller,  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  (dl  men  helonfj  to  the 
same  species,  aud  that  there  is  but  one  species  of  man. 


BOOK   II. 

ORHJIN    OF    THE    HUMAN    SPECIES. 


CHAPTER    X. 


ORIGIN   OF   SPRCIHS. — HYPOTHESES   OF   TRAXSMUTATIOX. — 
DAinVINlSM. 

I.  The  unity  of  the  human  race  raises  some  general  questions, 
and  entails  consequences  wliich  we  must  now  examine. 

The  first  question  which  is  sug-gcsted  to  the  mind  is  evi- 
dently that  of  ontjin.  "Without  abandoning  the  strictly 
scientific  aspect  of  tiie  subject,  that  is  to  say,  confining 
ourselves  to  the  results  of  experiment  and  observation,  can 
we  explain  the  appearance  on  our  globe  of  a  being  which 
forms  a  kingdom  by  itself  ?  I  do  not  hesitate  to  reply  in 
the  negative. 

Let  us  admit  at  starting  that  we  cannot  consider  sepa- 
rately the  question  of  the  human  origin.  Whatever  may  be 
the-  cause  or  causes  which  preside  over  the  birth  or  the 
•  levelopmcnt  of  the  organic  kingdom,  it  is  to  them  that  the 
origin  of  all  organised  and  living  bodies  must  be  traced. 
The  similarity  between  all  the  essential  phenomena  which 
they  exhiltit,  the  identity  of  the  general  laws  which  govern 
them,  render  it  impossible  to  suppose  that  it  can  be  other- 
wise. Tiic  problem  then  of  tiie  origin  of  mankind  becomes 
identical  with  that  oT  all  animal  and  vegetable  species. 

11.  This  problem  has  been  approached  very  frequently  and 
li\  iiiaiiv  methods.     But  here  we  can  only  take  into  account 


90  T/ic  Iliiman  Species. 

the  attempts  which  have  been  made  in  the  name  of  science. 
Nor  can  these  possess  any  interest  for  us  nntil  the  time 
when  it  was  at  least  possible  to  make  a  clear  statement 
of  the  question,  whicli  was  impossible  as  long  as  no  clear 
definition  had  been  given  of  organic  species.  In  an  historic 
account  of  the  attempts  which  have  been  made  to  solve  the 
([uestion,  it  is  useless,  therefore,  to  go  further  back  than  Ray 
and  Tournefort.  The  publication  of  Maillot  in  174;8  is  the 
first  attempt  which  deserves  passing  attention. 

I  do  not  intend  to  repeat  here  the  account  which  I  have 
given  elsewhere  of  the  different  theories  proposed  by  that 
talented  author,  by  Butfon,  Lamarck,  Et.  Geoffrey  St.-Hilaire, 
Bory  de  St.-Vincent,  and  by  Naudin,  Gaudry,  Wallace,  Owen, 
G abler,  Kolliker,  Haeckel,  Filippi,  Vogt,  Huxley,  and  Mme. 
Royer.  They  all  have  this  point  in  common  ;  they  connect 
the  origin  of  the  more  highly  developed  species  with  trans- 
mutations undergone  by  inferior  species.  But  there  the 
resemblance  ceases,  and  their  theories  frequently  differ 
entirely  on  all  other  points.  In  short,  their  ideas  may  be 
arranged  in  two  principal  groups  according  as  their  authors 
favour  a  vapid  or  a  gradual  transmutation.  The  former 
admit  tiie  suddi-ii  appearance  of  a  new  type  produced  by  a 
being  entirely  dilfereiit :  according  to  them  the  first  bird 
came  from  the  c<fg  of  a  reptile.  The  latter  maintain  that 
the  modifications  are  always  gradual,  that  between  one 
species  and  another  a  number  of  links  have  ir.tervened 
which  unite  the  two  extremes.  They  consider  that  types 
arc  only  multiplifd  slowly,  and  by  a  j)rogressive  diffei'en- 
tiation. 

In  reality  the  first  of  these  two  theories  ha.s  never  been 
stated  in  stich  a  manner  as  to  form  a  real  doctrine  ;  it  has 
never  fornu'd  a  school.  1'he  philosojjhers  who  pnjmoted  it 
confined  them.selves  mo.jt  fre(|uently  to  pointing  out,  in  a 
general  manner,  the  poHslbi/ifi/  of  the  phenomenon,  while 
they  attril)Uted  it  to  some  accident.  At  most  they  invoke 
in  aid  of  this  possibility,  some  analogies  borrowed  fVoni  the 
history  of  (»rdiiiarv   individual    development,    from    tiiat    of 


Hypotheses  of  Transimitalion.  91 

alternate  generation,  or  of  hyper-metamorphosis ;  they  pro- 
duce no  definite  fact  in  justification  of  their  assertions. 

With  tlie  exception  perhaps  of  the  iiypothesis  of  M.  Naudin, 
which  we  shall  presently  discuss,  all  these  theories  which 
favour  a  rapid  transmutation  deserve  a  still  graver  reproach, 
that,  namely,  of  neglecting  the  great  general  facts  exhibited 
by  the  organic  kingdom.  An  explanation  of  the  multiplica- 
tion and  the  succession  of  principal  or  secondary  types  l)y 
some  hypothesis  is  not  sufficient.  Special  account  must  be 
taken  of  the  relations  which  connect  these  typos,  of  the 
order  which  rules  the  whole  and  which  has  been  maintained 
from  remote  geological  periods  through  all  the  revolutions  of 
the  globe,  and  in  spite  of  changes  in  fauna  and  tlora. 

Accident,  without  rule  or  law,  when  invoked  as  the  imme- 
diate cause  of  special  transmutations,  is  obviousl}'  incapable  of 
explaining  this  important  fact ;  it  gives  no  explanation  what- 
ever of  the  generality  of  fundamental  types,  and  of  the  direct 
or  lateral  affinities  which  exist  between  their  derivatives. 

It  is  different  with  the  theories  which  favour  gradual 
transmutation.  They  deal  with  all  these  important  questions, 
and  give  a  more  or  less  plausible  solution  of  them.  They 
start  from  a  certain  number  of  principles  whose  consequences 
more  or  le.ss  explain  the  whole  question  and  many  of  its 
details.  In  a  word,  they  constitute  genuine  doctrines  and  it 
is  but  natural  that  they  should  have  gained  a  certain  number 
of  adherents. 

Unforttmately  these  theories  all  have  the  same  radical 
fault.  They  agree  with  a  certain  number  of  important  facts, 
connected  es.sentially  with  the  morphology  of  beino^  ;  but 
they  arc  in  direct  contradiction  with  the  fundamental  phe- 
nomena of  general  physiology,  which  are  no  less  general  or 
fixed  than  the  former.  This  contradiction  is  not  evidt-nt  at 
first  sight.  This  is  the  rea.son  why  these  doctrines  have 
influenced  not  only  the  public  at  large,  but  even  men  of 
the  highest  intellect,  whose  .sole  error  con.sists  in  their 
having  allowed  themselves  to  consider  one  siile  of  the 
question  only. 


92  The  Human  Species. 

All  these  theories  liavc  been  consolidated  into  the  doctrine 
which  rightly  bears  the  name  of  Darwin.  At  the  hands  of 
this  illustrious  naturalist,  the  hypothesis  of  gradual  trans- 
mutation has  assumed  a  force  and  appearance  of  truth 
which  it  never  possessed  before.  Doubtless,  long  before 
Darwin,  Lamarck  had  formulated  his  laio  of  heredity  and 
his  hnv  of  development  of  organs,  to  which  the  E]jglish 
naturalist  has  added  nothing  ;  M.  Naudin  had  compared 
natural  selection  to  artificial  selection;  Eticnnc  Geoftroy 
8t.-Hilaire  had  promulgated  the  principle  of  the  balance  of 
organs;  Serres  and  Agassiz  had  recognized  in  embryogenic 
phenomena  the  representation  of  the  genesis  of  beings.  But 
by  taking  as  a  starting  point  the  struggle  for  existence  ;  by 
explaining  in  this  manner  selection;  by  fixing  the  results  of 
heredity ;  by  replacing  the  'pre-cstahliiilced  laics  of  Lamarck 
by  the  laws  of  divergence,  continuity,  itermanent  characters 
and  o{ finite  heredity ;  by  giving  by  these  means  an  explana- 
tion of  the  adaptation  of  beings  to  all  the  conditions  of  exist- 
ence, the  ccrpaasive  jyoicer  of  some,  the  localisation  of  others, 
the  successive  modifications  of  all,  under  the  dominion  of  the 
hnvs  of  compensation,  economy  and  of  correlation  of 
increase  ;  by  applying  these  facts  to  the  past,  present  and 
future  of  animate  creation,  Darwin  has  formed  a  complete 
and  systematic  theory,  the  whole,  and  often  the  details,  of 
which  it  is  impo.ssible  not  to  admire. 

I  imderstand  the  fascination  exercised  by  this  profound  and 
ingenious  concoption,  which  is  supported  by  immense  know- 
lc«lgi',  and  eniioblcil  by  his  loyal  honesty.  I  should  doubtless 
have  yielded  as  so  many  others  have  done,  if  I  had  not  long 
understood  that  all  questions  of  this  kind  depend  espcrially 
upon  physi«»lf)gy.  Ncnv,  my  attention  once  arouseil,  1  found 
no  difliculty  in  recognising  the  point  at  which  the  eminent 
author  <|uits  the  ground  of  reality  and  enters  upon  that  of 
inadinissibh!  hypothesis. 

I  have  thought  it  right  to  pu})lish  my  criticisms  upon  the 
theory  of  transmutation,  and  upon  Darwinism  in  particular. 
I  wa.s  authorised  to   do   so   by  the  nuinerous  atta(;ks  which 


Hypotheses  of  Transvintation.  93 

liuve  often  been  made,  in  no  measured  terms,  against  what  I 
consider  to  be  the  truth,  and  against  every  opponent  of  the 
new  theory.  But  while  refuting  theories  I  have  always 
respected  the  authors  and  done  justice  to  their  work.  I  have 
([noted  the  good  as  well  as  the  bad,  and  have  always  held 
aloof  from  the  ardent  atul  lamentable  polemics  raised  by 
transmutation. 

I  have  had  great  ])leasiire,  when  occasion  has  offered,  in 
defending  the  splendid  researches  made  by  Darwin  in  the 
natural  sciences.  For  this  very  reason,  and  at  the  risk  of 
being  considered  narrow  minded,  enslaved  to  prejudices  and 
unable  to  leave  an  old  groove,  etc.,  etc.,  I  consider  myself 
entitled  to  attack  Darwinism,  if  I  employ  none  but  the 
weapons  of  science. 

III.  There  are  some  points  in  Darwinism  which  are  per- 
fectly unassailable.  We  may  consider  as  the  most  important 
the  8irn(j(jle  for  existence,  and  selection  which  is  the  result  of 
it.  It  is  not  the  first  time,  certainly,  that  the  former  has 
been  established,  and  the  important  part  it  has  to  play  in  the 
general  harmony  of  the  Avorld  lia.s  at  least  been  partly  com- 
])rehended.  I  will  here  only  recall  to  the  mind  of  my  readers 
the  fables  of  La  Fontaine.  But  no  one  had  insisted,  as 
Darwin  has  done,  upon  the  enormous  disproportion  which 
exists  between  the  number  of  births  and  the  number  of 
living  indiviiluals  ;  no  one  had  investigated,  as  he  has,  the 
general  causes  of  death  or  of  survival  which  produce  the 
final  result.  By  pointing  out  the  fact  that  each  species  tends 
to  increase  in  number  in  geometrical  progi-cssion,  which  is 
proved  by  the  number  of  offspring  to -which  a  single  mother 
can  give  birth  during  the  whole  course  of  her  life,  the  English 
n.ituralist  makes  it  easy  to  comprehend  the  intensity  of  the 
struggles,  direct  or  indirect,  which  are  undergone  by  animals 
and  plants  against  one  another  and  the  surrountling  world. 
It  is,  most  certainly,  entirely  owing  to  this  struggle  for 
existence,  that  the  whole  world,  in  a  few  years,  is  not  overrun 
l)y  some  species,  or  the  rivers  and  ocean  filled  in  the  same 
manner. 


94  The  llunian  Species. 

It  is  no  less  evident  to  me  that  the  survivors  cannot 
always  owe  their  preservation  to  a  combination  of  happy 
chances.  Among  the  immense  majority  the  victory  can  only 
be  due  to  certain  special  advantages,  ■which  are  not  enjoyed 
by  those  who  succumb.  The  result  of  this  sirucffjle  for 
existence  is,  then,  the  destruction  of  all  the  inferior  indi- 
viduals, and  the  preservation  of  those  individuals  only  which 
possess  some  kind  of  superiority.  This  is  what  Darwin  calls 
Natural  Selection. 

.  I  can  scarcely  understand  how  these  two  phenomena  can 
be  doubted  or  even  denied.  The}'  do  not  constitute  a  theory, 
but  are  facts.  Far  from  being  repugnant  to  tlie  mind,  they 
seem  inevitable,  the  consequences  follow  with  a  sort  of  neces- 
sity and  fatality  resembling  the  laws  of  the  inorganic  world. 

The  term  selection-  jrivcs  rise  to  criticism,  and  the  hmiruajje 
of  Darwin,  at  times  too  figurative,  renders  plausible  the 
objection  of  those  who  have  reproached  him  with  attributing 
to  nature  the  part  of  an  intelligent  being.  The  word  clnni- 
natioii  would  have  been  more  e.\act.  But  much  of  this 
sliouM  have  been  prevented  by  tlic  explanations  given  by 
the  aiithor.  Besides,  it  is  evident  that  the  struggle  for 
existence  entails  the  elimination  of  individuals  who  are 
le.ss  able  to  sustain  it,  and  that  the  result  exactly  resembles 
that  produced  by  unconscious  human  selection.  Then 
heredity  intervenes  among  beings  wliich  are  free  as  well  as 
among  tho.se  which  we  bring  up  in  captivity.  It  preserves 
and  accumulates  the  progri.ss  made  by  each  generation  in 
any  direction,  and  thv  liiial  residt  is  the  production  in  the 
organism  of  certain  iijipnciablc  anatomical  and  phy.siological 
nioililiciitions. 

'J'Im;  words  8Uj)cri<ir  and  inferior  shouUl  here  oidy  be 
taken  as  relative  to  the  conditions  of  existence  in  which 
animals  and  vegetables  are  placed.  ]n  other  words  the  indi- 
vidual which  is  best  adapted  to  those  conditions,  will  be 
Hujjerior  and  will  con(|uer  in  the  struggle  for  existence.  For 
instance,  the  black  rat  and  the  mouse  have  both  to  struggle 
against  the  brown  rat  whicji  entered   France  during  the  last 


Ilypolhcscs  of  Transmutation.  95 

century  from  the  banks  of  the  Volga.  The  black  rat  was 
almost  as  large  and  as  strong  as  his  adversary,  but  less 
ferocious  and  less  prolific.  It  has  been  exterminated  in  spite 
of  refuges  which  arc  inaccessible  to  its  enemy.  The  mouse, 
which  is  much  weaker,  but  at  the  same  time  much  smaller, 
can  retire  into  holes  which  are  too  small  for  the  brown  rat ; 
it  has  therefore  survived  the  black  rat. 

Is  it  possible  to  admit  that  selection  and  heredity  act 
etjually  upon  that  indefinable  soriiething  which  is  connected 
with  the  rudimentary  intelligence  and  instincts  of  animals  ? 
With.  Darwin  I  unhesitatingly  reply  in  the  affirmative. 
With  animals,  as  with  man,  all  the  individuals  of  the  same 
species  have  not  an  equal  amount  of  intelligence  and  do  not 
invariably  possess  the  same  aptitudes  ;  certain  instincts,  like 
certain  forms,  are  capable  of  modification.  Our  domestic 
animals  furnish  a  number  of  examples  of  these  facts.  The 
wild  ancestors  of  our  dogs  were  certainly  not  accustomed  to 
point  at  game.  When  left  to  themselves  and  placed  under 
new  conditions  of  existence,  animals  sometimes  change  their 
manner  of  life  entirely.  Beavers,  from  being  disturbed  by 
hunters,  have  dispersed  ;  they  have  now  abandoned  the  con- 
struction of  their  lodges  and  dig  out  long  btirrows  in  the 
banks  of  rivers.  The  struggle  for  existence  must  have  been 
lavourablc  to  the  first  discoverers  of  this  new  method  of 
escaping  from  their  persecutors,  and  natural  selection,  while 
preserving  them  and  their  descendants,  ha.s  converted  a 
sociable  and  constructive  animal  into  a  solitary  and  burrow- 
ing one. 

Up  to  this  point  it  is  evident  that  I  agree  in  all  that 
harwinlijuj  sjiid  on  the  struggle  for  existence  and  natural 
selection.  I  disagiee  with  him  when  he  attributes  to  them 
the  power  of  modifying  organised  beings  indefinitely  in  a 
given  direction,  so  that  the  direct  descendants  of  one  species 

rm  another  species  distinct  from  the  first, 

IV.  The  fundamental  cause  of  the  disagreement  arises 
evidently  from  the  fact  that  Darwin  had  forme<l  no  clear 
conception  of  the  .sense  which   he   attributed   to   the   word 


9^3  The  Hitman  Species. 

species.  I  have  been  unable  to  find  in  any  of  ln.s  works  a 
single  precise  statement  on  this  point.  The  accusation  is 
more  severe  from  being  brought  with  justice  against  an 
author  who  claims  to  have  discovered  the  origin  of  species. 

More  frequently  Darwin  seems  to  adhere  to  a  purely 
morphological  idea,  which  is  also  somewhat  vague.  He 
often  opposes  species  and  race,  which  he  also  calls  variety, 
l)ut  without  ever  stating  clearly  what  he  understands  by  one 
or  the  other.  He  endeavours,  moreover,  to  bring  them  to- 
gether as  closely  as  possible,  though  occasionally  recognising 
some  of  the  points  which  separate  them.  "  The  species,"  he 
says  in  drawing  one  of  his  conclusions,  "  must  be  treated  as 
an  artificial  combination  which  is  necessary  for  convenience." 
His  disciples  have  followed  him  faithfully  in  this  direction, 
and  those  who  use  the  most  exj)licit  language  on  this  sub- 
ject, join  their  master  in  declaring  that  a  species  is  only  a 
kind  of  conventional  group  similar  to  those  which  are  used 
in  cla.s.sification.  As  for  races,  they  are  only  species  under- 
g(jing  transmutation.  Now  from  what  he  has  already  learnt, 
short  though  the  study  has  been,  the  reader  knows,  I  hope, 
to  which  view  he  should  adhere,  and  understands  to  what 
confusions  such  a  vague  kind  of  theory  must  lead. 

In  spite  of  the  inevitable  uselessness  of  a  discussion  of  this 
kind,  let  us  follow  our  adversaries  into  this  unstable  ground, 
and  see  whether  morphological  facts  furnish  their  theory 
with  the  least  probability. 

Darwin  him.sclf,  on  .several  occasions,  states  that  the  result 
of  selection  is  essentially  to  adapt  animals  and  plants  to  the 
coiifliliotis  of  existence  in  which  they  have  to  live.  Upon 
this  point  I  agree  with  hini  entirely.  If,  howevm*,  harmony 
is  once  cstabli.slicd  l)ctween  orjianised  beings  and  the  condi- 
tions  of  life,  the  struggle  for  existence  and  selection  could 
oidy  result  in  consulidating  it  ami  coiisciiucnflv  their  action 
is  preservative. 

If  the  conditions  of  life  change  tliey  will  again  come  into 
jilay  in  order  to  establish  a  new  e»milibriuni,  and  modifica- 
tions more  or  less  maiked  will  be  the  result  of  their  action. 


Hypotheses  of  Transmutation.  97 

I)Ut  will  these  modifications  be  sufficiently  great  to  give  rise 
to  a  new  species  ?     The  following  fact  will  serve  as  a  reply. 

At  the  present  time  there  is  a  stag  in  Corsica,  which  from 
its  form  has  been  compared  to  the  badger-hound  :  its  antlers 
ditVrr  from  those  of  European  stags.  Those  who  confine 
themselves  to  morphological  characters,  will  assuredly  con- 
sider this  as  a  distinct  species,  and  it  has  often  been 
considered  to  be  so.  Now  BnlTon  preserved  a  fawn  of  this 
pretended  species,  and  placed  it  in  his  park  ;  in  four  years  it 
became  both  larger  and  finer  than  the  French  stags  which 
were  older  and  considered  finer  grown.  Moreover,  the 
formal  evidence  of  Herodotus,  Aristotle,  Polybius  and  Pliny 
attest  that  in  their  time  there  were  no  stags  either  in  Corsica 
or  Africa.  Is  it  not  evident  that  the  stag  in  question  had 
been  transported  from  the  continent  to  the  island ;  that 
under  the  new  conditions  the  species  had  undergone  tempo- 
rary morphological  modification,  though  it  had  lost  none  of 
its  power  of  resuming  its  primitive  characters,  when  placed 
in  its  primitive  conditions  of  life  ? 

Are  we,  then,  to  conclude  that  in  time  nature  could  have 
completed  the  action,  and  entirely  separated  the  Corsican  stag 
iVom  its  original  stock  ?  We  may  answer  in  the  negative,  if 
any  weight  is  to  be  attached  to  experience  and  observation. 

S])ecies  partially  subject  to  the  rule  of  man  furnish  a 
number  of  facts  which  enable  us  to  compare  the  power  of 
natural  forces,  when  abandoned  to  their  own  action,  with  that 
of  man  in  modifying  a  .'specific  type.  In  all  artificial  races 
varieties  are  infinitely  more  numerous, 'more  varied  and 
more  marked  than  wild  races  and  varieties.  Now  the  result 
of  these  transmutations  of  organisms  has  only  consisted  in 
the  formation  of  races,  never  in  the  formation  of  a  nevj 
!<prcii:s.  Darwin  himself  accepts  this  conclusion  implicitly 
iu  his  magnificent  work  on  pigeons;  for  when  speaking  of 
the  rttccs  of  jii'ji'oris  he  only  says  tliat  the  difference  of  form 
is  such  that  if  they  had  been  found  in  a  wild  state,  wc  should 
have  been  com])elled  to  make  at  least  three  or  four  genera  of 
them.     The  wild  rock  pigeon.s,  the  original  stock  of  all  our 


98  The  I/iniian  Species. 

domestic  pigeons,  only  differ,  on  tlic  contrary,  in  shades  of 
colour. 

The  result  is  always  tlie  same,  whenever  we  can  compare 
the  work  of  nature  with  our  own.  When  he  has  anything  to 
do  Avith  any  vegetable  or  animal  species,  tnan  always  changes 
its  character,  sometimes,  after  a  lapse  of  some  years,  the 
change  being  much  greater  than  that  ])roduced  by  nature 
since  the  species  first  came  into  existence.  The  effect  of  the 
conditions  of  life  {milieu),  of  which  we  will  speak  presently, 
the  struggle  for  existence  and  natural  selection  understood 
as  I  have  just  described  it,  the  power  which  man  possesses  of 
directing  natural  forces  and  changing  their  resultant,  etusily 
explain  this  superiority,  of  action. 

Consequently,  without  leaving  the  domain  of  facts,  and 
only  judging  from  what  we  know,  we  can  say  that  mor- 
phology itself  justifies  the  conclusion  that  one  species  lias 
never  produced  another  by  means  of  derivation.  To  admit 
the  contrary  is  to  axil  in  the  tinknoioi,  and  to  substitute  a 
jiossihilify  for  the  results  of  experience. 

Physiology  justifies  a  still  stronger  assertion.  Upon  this 
ground  also  man  is  shown  to  be  as  powerful  a:5  nature,  and 
for  the  same  reasons.  With  our  cultivated  plants  and 
domestic  animals,  it  is  not  only  the  j)rimitive  form  which  has 
undergone  change,  but  certain  functions  also.  If  we  had 
only  enlarged  and  deformed  the  wild  carrot  and  the  wiKl 
radish,  it  would  not  have  become  more  eatable.  To  render 
it  agreeable  to  our  taste,  the  production  of  certain  substances 
had  to  be  reduceil,  and  that  of  others  crdargi'il,  that  is  to  Say, 
nutrition  and  secretion  had  to  be  modified.  If  the  functions 
in  wild  animal  stocks  had  remained  permanent,  wc  should 
havf  had  none  of  ihose  races  which  are  tlislinguished  by  a 
dilVcrtMicc  in  the  colour  of  tlio  hair,  in  the  j)ruduction  of 
milk,  in  aptitude  for  work,  or  in  the  production  of  meat.  .If 
instinct  ilsi-lf  had  not  oboycil  the  action  of  man,  we  should 
ii<»t  have  had  in  the  sainc  kiiuul.  jMiinlcts,  Lrnv-honiiijs, 
tniftle  dogs  and  terriern. 

Nature  produces  nothing  like  this.     'i\t  .uliiiit  lli;it  >iiiiihir 


Darwinism.  99 

resiilt.s  will  one  day  follow  from  the  action  of  natural  forces 
is  to  appeal  to  the  unknoivn,  to  -possihility,  and  runs 
counter  to  all  laws  of  analogy,  and  all  the  results  furnished 
by  experience  and  observation. 

Man's  superiority  over  nature  is  quite  as  clearly  shown  in 
the  group  of  phenomena,  which  relate  to  the  (question  with 
which  we  are  now  dealing. 

We  have  seen  how  rare  are  the  cases  of  natural  hybrids 
among  plants  themselves;  we  have  also  seen  that  no  cases 
are  known  among  mammalia.  Now  since  man  has  begun 
to  make  experiments  in  this  direction,  he  has  increased  the 
number  of  hybrids  among  plants,  and  among  animals  also. 
Moreover,  he  has  succeeded  in  preserving  for  more  than 
twenty  generations,  a  hybrid  which  he  has  been  able  to 
protect  from  rcvcrsion  and  disordered  variation.  But  we 
know  the  care  that  was  necessary  to  insure  the  continuance 
of  ccgllopa  spclkcfovmis.  If  this  plant  had  been  left  to  itself, 
it  would  soon  have  disappeared. 

The  single  exception  which  is  known  confirms  therefore 
the  law  of  sterility  among  species  left  to  themselves.  Now 
this  law  is  in  direct  opposition  to  all  the  theories,  which  like 
Darwinism,  tend  to  confuse  species  and  race.  This  has  been 
clearly  understood  by  Huxley  and  has  caused  him  to  say,  "  I 
adopt  the  theory  of  Darwin  under  the  reserve  that  proof 
should  be  given  that  physiological  species  can  be  produced 
by  selective  cros-sing." 

This  proof  has  not  yet  been  given,  for  it  is  a  strange  abuse 
of  words  to  call  by  the  name  of  species,  the  series  of  hybrids 
whose  history  I  have  given  above,  viz.:  the  leporides  and  the 
rhabiu.H.  But  even  if  the  proof  demanded  by  Huxley  were 
furnished,  it  docs  not  follow  that  the  greatest  objection  to  the 
darwinian  theories  would  be  removed. 

In  fact,  iu  this  theory,  as  in  all  those  which  rest  upon 
'jradual  inniamuiation  the  new  species  derives  its  origin 
tV»»m  a  vara 1 1/,  possessing  a  character  which  is  at  first 
rutlimentary,  but  which  is  developed  very  (jradiotlh/,  making 
some  progre*«s  in  each  generation.     The  result  of  tlii-^  i>  ♦h:!! 


ICO  TJic  Ilunian  Species. 

between  successive  individuals  the  only  difference  is  that  of 
race.  Now,  as  we  have  seen,  the  fertility  among  races  of  the 
same  species  remains  constant,  and  consc(Hicntly,  in  the 
hypothesis  of  Darwin,  as  in  that  of  Lamarck,  etc,  the  fertile 
crossinjTs  would  in  ever}' sense  of  the  word  constantly  confuse 
the  original  and  the  derived  species  which  was  in  process  of 
formation.  The  same  cause  having  produced  the  same 
effects  since  the  commencement  of  the  world,  the  organic 
world  would  present  the  greatest  confusion  instead  of  its 
well-known  order. 

Darwin,  then,  himself  and  his  most  enthusiastic  adherents 
must  admit  that  at  some  given  moment  these  races  became 
suddenly  incapable  of  crossing  with  their  predecessors. 
Whence  then  arises  the  sterility  which  separates  species! 
When,  and  at  what  moment  will  the  physiological  hoiid  bo 
broken,  which  iinites  the  original  species  with  its  modified 
descendants,  even  when  this  mollification  is  carried  as  far  as 
the  ordinary  o.k  and  the  niata?  What  will  be  the  deter- 
mining cause  of  this  great  fact  which  obtains  through  the 
whole  economy  of  the  organic  kingdom  ? 

In  his  work  upon  the  Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants, 
Darwin  rejjlies:  "Since  species  do  not  owe  their  mutual 
sterility  to  the  accumulative  action  of  natural  selection,  and 
a  great  number  of  considerations  show  us  that  they  do  not 
owe  it  to  a  creative  act,  we  ought  to  admit  that  it  has  been 
produced  ineiihiitally  during  their  gradual  formation,  and 
is  connected  with  some  uidvnown  UKtdification  of  their 
r>rganisation." 

We  have  seen  tliat,  in  the  last  editions  uf  the  Uri()in  of 
Species,  he  refuses  to  admit  that  fertility  among  mongrels  is 
general,  taking  his  stand  upon  our  irjnorance  on  the  subject 
t»f  croK-singH  between  wild  in  ricfies  {races). 

Thus,  in  onh-r  to  admit  thi-  physiological  transniul.ilion  of 
race  into  species,  a  fact  which  is  contrary  to  all  positive 
faeis,  ])arwiu  and  his  followers  reject  the  secular  results  of 
experience  and  observation,  ami  substitute  in  their  place  a 
jMjKsible  accident,  and  tlu'  inilmnm. 


Danvinism.  lOl 

The  Djirwinian  tlicory  relics  entirely  upon  the  possibility  of 
tiiis  transmutation.  We  see  upon  what  data  the  hypothesis 
of  this  possibility  rests.  Now,  in  a  it'uhj  libend  tipirit, 
I  ask  every  unprejudiced  man,  however  little  he  may  be 
conversant  with  .science,  the  question,  is  it  upon  such  founda- 
tions that  a  gtMiL'ral  theory  in  physics  or  chemistry  would  bo 
founded  ? 

V.  Moreover,  the  argument,  of  which  we  have  just  seen 
an  example,  may  be  found  in  every  page  of  Darwinian 
writings.  Whether  a  fundamental  question,  such  as  we  have 
just  been  examining,  or  a  minor  problem,  as  the  transmu- 
tation of  the  tomtit  into  the  nuthatch,  is  under  discussion, 
possibiltti/,  chance,  and  ^'t'rwHai  coiviction  are  invariably 
adduced  as  convincing  reasons.  Is  modern  science  estab- 
lished upon  such  foundations  ? 

Darwin  and  his  discijiles  wish  thit  even  our  ignorance  on 
the  subject  of  certain  phenomena  should  be  considered  as  in 
their  favour.  The  question  has  often  been  argued  on  the 
ground  of  palieontology,  and  they  have  been  asked  to  point 
out  a  single  instance  of  those  series  which  ought,  according 
to  them,  to  unite  the  parent  species  with  its  derivatives. 
They  admit  their  inability;  but  they  reply  that  the  extinct 
fauna  and  flora  have  left  very  few  remains ;  that  we  only 
know  a  small  part  of  these  ancient  archives;  that  the  facts 
which  favour  tlnir  doctrine  are  doubtless  buried  under  the 
waves  with  sid^mcrged  continents,  etc.  "This  manner  of 
treating  the  question,"  Darwin  concludes,  "dimini.slics  the 
dilVicultics  considerably,  if  it  does  not  cause  them  to  dis- 
ap|K*ar  entirely." 

Hut,  I  again  a.sk  the  qtiestion,  in  what  branch  of  human 
knowledge,  except  these  ob.scurc  subjects,  should  we  regard 
problems  as  solved,  for  the  very  roa.son  that  we  possess  none 
of  the  requisite  knowledge  for  their  .solution  ? 

I  do  not  intend  to  reproduce  here  the  entire  examination 
which  I  have  made  elsewhere  of  the  transm\itation  theories 
in  general,  or  of  Darwinism  in  particular.  The  above  obser- 
vations will  .suflice,  I  hope,  to  show  v.hy  I  could  not  accept 


I02  The  Huriian  Species. 

even  the  most  seductive  of  these  theories.  lu  certain  points 
they  agree  with  certain  ji^encral  facts  ami  give  an  explanation 
of  a  certain  number  of  phenomena.  But  all  without  excep- 
tion attain  this  result  only  by  the  aid  of  hypotheses  which 
are  in  flagrant  contradiction  with  other  general  facts,  quite 
as  fundamental  as  those  which  they  explain.  In  particular, 
all  these  doctrines  are  based  upon  a  gradual  and  progressive 
derivation,  upon  the  confusion  of  race  and  species.  Con- 
sequently they  ignore  an  unquestionable  physiological  fact ; 
they  are  entirely  in  opposition  with  another  fact,  which 
follows  from  the  first,  and  is  conspicuous  from  every  point 
of  view,  the  isolation,  namely,  of  .specific  groups  from  the 
earliest  ages  of  the  world,  and  the  maintenance  of  organic 
order  through  all  the  revolutions  of  the  globe. 

Such  are  my  reasons  for  refusing  my  adherence  to  ])ar\viii's 
theories. 

VII.  The  theory  of  the  English  naturalist  is  certainly  the 
mo.st  vigorous  effort  which  has  been  made  to  trace  back  the 
origin  of  the  organic  world  by  processes  analogous  to  those 
which  we  have  discovered  in  the  genesis  of  the  inorganic 
world,  that  is  to  say,  in  only  having  recourse  to  secondary 
causes.  Ho  has  failed,  as  we  see,  like  Lamarck.  I'licse 
eminent  men  will  be  succeeded  by  others  who  will  attempt 
the  solution  of  the  same  problem.  \s"\\\  they  bo  more 
fortunate  ? 

No  one  is  less  inclined  than  I  am  to  place  any  limit  upon 
the  extension  of  Imman  knowledge.  Yet  the  exten.sion  of  our 
Bcifiitific  knowledge,  in  the  widest  .sense  of  the  term,  is 
always  subordinate  to  certain  conditions.  The  most  attentive 
examination,  even  of  a  liMiiian  work,  will  never  teach  u.s 
anything  of  the  jinjce-sucn  which  have  permitted  its  realisa- 
tion. 'J'he  cUvercst  watchniakir,  if  Ik;  lias  not  followed 
Ktudies  perfectly  foreign  to  his  vocatiun,  \\\\\  kn<>w  nothiii" 
of  the  origin  of  iron,  of  its  transformation  into  steel,  of  the 
rolling  and  temjuTing  (»f  a  main  spring.  TIk;  minutest  study 
of  that  metallic  ribbon  \vlii<li  he  knows  so  well,  will  tell  him 
nothing  of  its  origin,  nothing  of  the  process  of  its  fabrication. 


Dai"wi7iism.  103 

To  know  more  lie  must  leave  his  shop  ;uul  visit  the  furnaces, 
the  forjjes,  and  the  rollinir  mills. 

In  the  works  of  nature  it  is  the  same.  With  nature  as 
well  as  with  ourselves,  the  phenomena  which  'produce,  are 
very  clifferent  from  those  which  prcsei"ve,  and  from  those 
displayed  in  the  object  produced. 

The  most  complete  anatomical  and  physiological  study  of 
an  animal  or  of  a  full-grown  plant  will  certainly  teach  us 
nothing  about  the  metamorphoses  of  the  microscopic  cell 
from  which  sprang  the  dog,  the  elephant,  and  man  himself. 

Now  hitherto  we  have  only  directed  our  attention  to 
species  already  formed,  We  can  therefore  learn  nothing 
more  relative  to  their  mode  of  production. 

But  we  know  that  the  ^^nJcnov:il  cause  which  has  given 
liirth  to  extinct  and  living  species  has  been  manifested  at 
ilifferent  times  and  interraittingly  upon  the  surface  of  the 
globe.  Nothing  authorises  us  to  suppose  that  it  is  exhausted. 
Although  it  appears  to  have  generally  acted  at  times  which 
correspond  to  great  geological  movements,  it  is  not  impossible 
that  it  may  be  at  work  on  some  point  of  the  earth  even  at 
this  epoch  of  relatively  profound  rest.  If  this  is  the  case, 
perhaps  some  happy  chance  will  throw  a  little  light  upon  the 
great  mystery  of  organic  origins.  But  until  experience  and 
observation  have  taught  us  something,  all  who  wish  to  remain 
faithful  to  true  science,  will  accept  the  existence  and  succes- 
sion of  species  as  a  primordial  fact.  He  will  apply  to  all 
what  Darwin  applies  to  his  single  prototype;  and,  in  order 
to  explain  what  is  still  inexplicable,  he  will  not  sacrifice  to 
hypotheses,  however  ingenious  they  may  be,  the  exact  and 
l»ositive  knowledge  which  has  been  won  by  nearly  two 
centuries  of  work. 


CHAPTER    XL 

OUKMN   OF   THE    HUMAN    SPECIES.— DIFFERENT    HYPOTHESES. 

I.  The  preceding  chapter  might  enable  me  to  dispense 
>vith  a  discussion  of  tlie  applications  which  have  been  made 
of  Darwinism  to  the  history  of  man.  Nevertheless,  apart 
from  the  curious  points  in  tlie  subject  itself,  some  discussion 
of  it  will  be  necessary,  for  it  will  not  be  devoid  of  instruction. 

Lamarck  endeavoured  to  show  how,  by  means  of  his  theory 
o/Iuibit,  it  was  possible  to  conceive  the  direct  transmutation 
of  the  chimpanzee  into  man.  The  Darwinists  also  agree  in 
connecting  man  with  the  apes.  Isevertheless  none  of  thcni 
])oint  out  any  of  the  species  at  present  existing  as  our  imme- 
diate ancestor;  on  this  point  they  difler  from  their  illustrious 
jtredeccssor.  It  might  be  supposed  that  Vogt  had  determined 
this  point  if  we  take  literally  some  pas-sages  of  his  Legona 
Hur  VJiomiae.  But  the  Genevose  savant  has  clearly  ex- 
pressed his  theory  in  his  Mdmo'ire  sar  Ics  Micmcepkah's. 
lie  carries  back  the  point  of  departure  common  to  the  two 
typos  to  an  anterior  ancestor.  Darwin,  Wallace,  Filippi, 
Lul*bock,  Haeckel,  etc.,  connect  man  still  more  closely  with  the 
apes.  'J'helatter  states  his  conclusions  in  the  following  terms: — 

" 'J'he  human  race  is  a  branch  of  the  catarrhino  group  ;  ho 
wa.s  developed  in  the  old  world,  and  sprang  iVoni  apcM  of 
this  group,  which  have  long  been  extinct." 

II.  Vogt  disagrees  with  his  scientific  colleagues  in  an 
impijrtant  point.  He  admits  that  dilTerent  simian  stoc^ks 
m  ly  have  given  ri.sc  to  different  liuman  gronjts.  The 
|n»puIations  of  the  old  and  tlu;  new  worhl  would  thus  bo 
d<sccndants  (jf  the  dilVen-nt  forms  which  arc  peculiar  to  the 
two  continents.    On  this  h^'pothesi.s,  Australia  and  Polynesia, 


TJicoi'ics  of  DiiJ'unn  and  Ilacckcl.  105 

where  there  never  have  been  apes,  must  necessarily  have  been 
peopled  by  means  of  migration. 

The  eminent  professor  of  Geneva,  moreover,  always  con- 
fines himself  to  a  somewhat  vague  statement  of  his  ideas 
relative  to  the  genealogies  which  he  thinks  fit  to  attribute  to 
tlie  dififeront  groups  of  mankind. 

III.  Darwin  and  Hacckcl  have  been  bolder.  The  former 
has  publisiied  an  important  work  upon  the  Descent  of  M<in, 
and  the  latter  in  his  U'lstory  of  the  Creation  of  Onjaniscd 
licintjs  has  treated  the  same  subject  in  detail,  and  given 
the  genealogical  table  of  our  supposed  ancestors,  st;irting 
from  the  most  simple  known  animals.  The  master  and  the 
disciple  agree  almost  invariably,  and  it  is  to  Haeckcl  himself 
that  Darwin  refers  the  reader  who  is  curious  to  know  the 
human  genealogy  in  detail.  Let  us  glance  rapidly  at  the 
origin  a.ssigned  to  us  by  the  German  naturalist 

llaeckel  considers  as  the  first  ancestor  of  all  living  beings 
the  moncra,  which  are  nothing  more  than  the  ariKvbic  as 
understood  by  Dujardin.  From  this  initial  form  man  has 
reached  the  state  in  which  we  now  find  him,  by  passing 
through  twenty-one  typical  transitory  forms.  In  the  present 
state  of  things  our  nearest  neighbours  are  the  anthropomor- 
phous or  taillcxa  cahirrh'ine  apes,  such  as  the  orang,  the 
gorilla,  the  chimpanzee,  etc.  All  are  .sprung  from  the  saniB 
stock,  from  the  type  of  the  tailed  catarrhine  apes,  the  latter 
are  descended  from  the  j^rosimia;,  a  type  which  is  now  repre- 
sented by  the  macaucos,  the  loris,  etc.  Next  come  the  mar- 
supials, which  form  the  17th  stage  of  our  evolution  ;  further 
examination  is  useless. 

Although  the  distance  between  anthropomorphous  apes 
ind  man  appears  to  be  but  small  to  Haeckel,  he  has  never- 
theless thought  it  neces.sary  to  admit  the  existence  of  an 
intermediate  stiige  between  ourselves  and  the  most  highly 
developed  ape.  This  purely  hypothetical  being,  of  which 
not  the  slightest  vestige  haa  been  found,  is  supposed  to  be 
detached  from  the  tailless  catarrhine  apes,  and  to  constitute 
the  21st  sta-^e  of  tiic    modification   which    ha.'^    led   to  tho 


io6  The  Human  Species. 

liunian  form,  Hacckel  calls  it  the  ape-man,  or  the  i^/^/iC- 
coid  man.  He  denies  liini  the  gift  of  articulate  speech  as 
well  as  the  development  of  the  intelligence  and  self-con- 
sciousness. 

Darwin  also  admits  the  existence  of  this  link  between  man 
and  apes.  He  says  nothing  as  to  his  intellectual  faculties. 
On  the  other  hand  he  traces  out  his  physical  portrait,  basing 
his  remarks  upon  a  certain  number  of  exceptional  peculiarities 
observed  in  the  human  sjjecies,  which  he  regards  as  so  many 
phenomena  of  imrt'ml  atavism.  "  The  earliest  ancestors  of 
man,"  he  says,  "were  without  doubt  once  covered  with  hair; 
buth  sexes  having  beards  ;  their  ears  were  pointed  anil  capable 
of  movement ;  and  their  bodies  were  provided  with  a  tail 
having  the  proper  muscles.  Their  limbs  and  bodies  were 
acted  on  by  many  muscles,  which  now  only  occasionally 
reappear  in  man,  but  which  are  still  normally  present  in  the 
quadrumana.  The  great  artery  and  nerve  of  the  humerus 
ran  through  a  supracondyluid  foramen.  At  this,  or  some 
earlier  period,  the  intestine  gave  forth  a  much  larger  diverti- 
culum or  ca'cum  than  that  now  existing.  The  foot,  judging 
from  the  condition  of  the  great  toe  in  the  fcetus,  wivs  then 
prehensile,  and  our  progenitors,  no  doubt,  were  arboreal  in 
their  habits,  freqtienting  some  warm  forest-clad  land  ;  the 
nV'iles  were  provided  with  canine  teeth  which  served  as 
formidable  weapons." 

IV.  In  attributing  a  tail  to  our  first  direct  ancestors 
Darwin  connects  him  with  the  type  of  tailed  ratarrhines,  and 
consccpicntly  removes  him  a  stage  backward  in  the  seale  of 
ev(»lutions.  'I'he  English  naturalist  is  not  satisfieil  to  take 
his  stand  ui)on  the  ground  of  his  own  doctrines,  and,  like 
Hacckel,  on  this  point  j)hiccs  himsi-If  in  direct  varianro 
witli  one  of  the  fundamental  laws  which  constitute  the 
principal  charms  of  I)arwinisrn,  whr)si'  force  I  am  far  from 
denying. 

In  fact,  in  tlie  theory  of  J)arwiii,  Iraiismutatioiis  do  not 
take  jdacp,  either  by  chance  or  in  every  direction.  Tliey 
arc  ruled  by  certain   laws  which  are  due  to  the  organisation 


Theories  of  Da  ruin  and  JIacckcl.  107 

itself.  It*  ail  organism  is  once  modified  in  a  j^'ivcn  direction, 
it  can  undLT^io  secondary  or  tertiary  transmutations,  but  will 
still  preserve  the  impress  of  the  original.  It  is  the  law  of 
'permanent  characterisation  which  alone  permits  Darwin 
to  explain  the  filiation  of  groups,  their  characteristics  and 
their  numerous  relations.  It  is  by  virtue  of  this  law  that  all 
the  descendants  of  the  first  mollusc  have  been  molluscs  ;  all 
the  descendants  of  the  first  vertebrate  have  been  vertebrates. 
It  is  clear  that  this  constitutes  one  of  the  foundations  of  the 
doctrine. 

It  follows  that  two  beings  belonging  to  two  distinct  types 
can  be  referred  to  a  common  ancestor,  whose  characters  were 
not  clearly  developed,  but  the  one  cannot  be  the  descendant 
of  the  other. 

Now  man  and  apes  present  a  very  striking  contrast  in 
respect  to  type.  Their  organs,  as  I  have  already  remarked, 
correspond  almost  exactly  term  for  term  ;  but  these  organs 
are  arranged  after  a  very  different  plan.  In  man  they  are  so 
arranged  that  he  is  essentially  a  ivalker,  while  in  apes  they 
necessitate  his  being  a  climhev ]\xsi  as  strongly. 

There  is  here  an  anatomical  and  mechanical  distinction 
which  had  already  been  proved,  as  regards  the  inferior  apes, 
by  the  works  of  Vicq  d'Azyr,  Lawrence,  Serres,  etc.  The 
investigations  of  Diivt-rnoy  on  the  gorilla,  of  Gratiolet  and 
M.  d'Alix  upon  the  chimpanzee,  have  established  the  fact 
that  the  anthrojjomorphous  apes  possess  the  same  funda- 
mental character  in  every  point.  Moreover,  a  glance  at  the 
page  where  Huxley  has  figured  side  by  side  a  human  skeleton 
and  the  skeletons  of  the  most  highly  developed  apes,  is  a 
sufficiently  convincing  proof  of  the  fact. 

The  consequence  of  these  facts,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  logical  application  of  the  law  oi  jfo-niancnt  chamcterisa- 
/<07i,  isthat  man  cannot  be  descended  from  an  ancestor  who  is 
already  characterised  as  an  ape,  any  more  than  a  catarrhine 
tailless  ape  can  be  descended  from  a  tailed  catarrhine.  A  ualk- 
iifj  animal  cannot  be  descended  from  a  climbinfj  one.  This 
was  clearly  understood  by  Vogt.     In  placing  man  among  tho 


lo8  TJic  IIu))ian  Species. 

primates  he  declares,  without  hesitation,  that  the  lowest 
class  of  apes  have  passed  tiie  landmark  (the  comnion  ancestor) 
from  which  the  ditierent  types  of  this  family  have  originated 
and  diverged. 

We  must  then  place  the  origin  of  man  beyond  the  last 
ape  if  we  wish  toatihere  to  one  of  the  laws  most  emphatically 
necessary  to  the  Darwinian  theory.  We  then  come  to  the 
prosimice  of  Haeckel,  the  loris,  intlris,  etc.  But  these  animals 
also  are  climbers;  we  must  go  further,  therefore,  in  search  of 
our  first  direct  ancestor.  But  the  genealogy  traced  by  Haeckel 
brings  us  from  the  latter  to  the  imu'supUds. 

From  man  to  the  kangaroo  the  distance  is  certainly  great. 
Nqjv  neither  living  nor  extinct  fauna  show  the  intermediate 
types  which  ought  to  serve  as  landmarks.  This  difhoulty 
causes  but  slight  embarrassment  to  Darwin.  We  know  that 
he  consider  the  want  of  information  upon  similar  questions 
as  a  proof  in  his  favour.  Haeckel  doubtless  is  just  as  little 
embarrassed.  He  admits  the  existence  of  an  absolutely  theo- 
retical pithecoid  man,  and  it  is  not  the  only  instance  in 
which  he  procee<ls  in  a  similar  manner  in  order  to  complete 
his  genealogical  table.  Take  as  an  instance  his  words  upon 
the  sozoura  (14th  stage),  an  lunphibious  animal  which  is 
cijually  unknown  to  .science.  "The  proof  of  its  existence  arises 
from  the  necessity  of  an  intermediate  ty|)e  between  the  13th 
and  the  14-th  stage." 

Thus,  since  it  has  been  provrd  that,  aceoriling  to  Darwin- 
ism itst'lf,  the  origin  of  man  must  be  placed  bi-yond  the  iMh 
stage,  and  since  it  becomes,  in  consequence  necessary  to  iill 
up  the  gap  between  marsupials  and  man,  will  Haeckel  admit 
the  existence  of  four  unknon'n  ijiffnucdiatc  (froups^  instiail 
of  one  ?  Will  he  conjplete  his  gmealogy  in  this  manner  ?  It 
is  not  for  me  to  answer. 

V.  Darwin  and  Haeckel  will  most  certainly  think  it  very 
strange  that  a  representative  of  the  old  school,  a  man  who 
lielieves  in  the  reality  of  species,  should  have  the  pretension 
to  b<;  better  acquainted  with  the  application  of  the  laws  of 
Darwinism  than  them.sclves«,  and  t<^  point  out  serious  lapses 


Theories  of  Da  ruin  and  Ilacckcl.  109 

in  the  applications  tliey  have  made.  Let  us  take  our  stand 
then  on  the  ground  of  facts.  There  we  shall  at  once  find 
proof  that  this  genealogy  is  wrong  throughout,  and  is  founded 
on  a  inati'rial  anatomical  error. 

Both  Darwin  and  Haeckel  connect  the  simian  series  with 
a  typo  which  would  now  be  represented  by  the  leviuridai, 
which  the  latter  designates  by  the  terin  prosimicc.  The  only 
grounds  which  Darwin  assigns  for  this  opinion  are  certain 
characters  taken  especially  from  dentition.  Haeckel  goes 
back  to  embryogencsis. 

We  know  that  with  the  exception  of  the  marsupials 
(kangaroos,  sarrigue),  and  the  monotremata  (ornithorhynchus, 
echidna),  all  mammals  have  a  placenta,  an  organ  essentially 
composed  of  a  network  of  blood-vessels,  which  unites  the 
mother  to  the  fuetus,  and  serves  for  the  nutrition  of  the  latter. 
With  the  ruminants,  the  edentata,  and  the  cetacea,  the 
jilacenta  is  simple  and  (Hif'usc,  that  is  to  say,  the  tufts  of  the 
blood-vessels  are  developed  upon  the  entire  surface  of  the 
fcEtal  envelope,  and  arc  in  direct  communication  with  the 
iimer  surface  of  the  uterus.  In  the  rest  of  the  mammals  the 
jilacenta  is  <Jouhle  ;  half  being  derived  from  the  mother,  and 
lialf  from  the  foetus,  or  rather  its  external  envelope.  A  special 
membrane  called  the  Dccidua  covers  the  interior  of  the 
uterus,  and  unites  the  placentje.  Haeckel,  correctly  attaching 
great  importance  to  these  anatomical  differences,  divides 
mammals  into  two  great  groups :  the  indeciduafa,  which 
have  no  decidua,  and  the  decidnata,  which  possess  it. 

Among  the  latter  the  placenta  can  surround  the  mam- 
malian ovum  like  a  girdle  {zonoplacentalia),  or  form  a  kind 
of  circular  disc  more  or  less  developed  {dtscoplacentalia). 
ilan,  apes,  bats,  insectivora,  and  rodents,  present  the  latter 
arrangement,  and  thus  form  a  natural  group  to  which  no 
zoiioplaccutial,  and,  of  course,  no  indcciduatc  mammals  can 
be  ailmitted. 

Haeckel,  without  the  least  hesitation,  adds  his  prosimicc 
to  the  gioups  which  I  have  just  enumerated,  that  is  to  say, 
he  attributes  to  them  a  decidua  and   a  discoidal   placenta. 


no  TJic  II II  in  an  Species. 

Now  the  anatomical  investigations  of  MM.  Alphonse  Milne 
Edwards  and  Grandidior  upon  the  animals  brought  by  the 
latter  from  Madagasciir  place  it  beyond  all  doubt  that  the 
prosimiaj  of  Haeckel  have  no  decidua  and  a  diffuse  placenta. 
They  are  indec'uluuta.  Far  from  any  possibility  of  their 
being  the  ancestors  of  the  apes,  according  to  the  principle 
laid  down  by  Haeckel  himself,  they  cannot  even  be  regarded 
as  the  ancestors  of  the  zonoplacential  mammals,  the  carnivora 
for  instance,  and  ought  to  be  connected  with  the  pachyder- 
mata,  the  edentata  and  the  cetacea. 

Darwin  and  Haeckel  will,  perhaps  reply  that  when  they 
made  their  genealogies,  the  embryogenesis  of  the  prosimia} 
was  not  known.  But  why  then  represent  them  as  one  of  the 
intermediate  links  to  which  they  attach  so  much  importance? 
Their  process  is  alwa3's  the  same,  considering  the  unknoica 
as  a  proofm  favour  of  their  theory. 

VI.  The  necessity,  which  I  think  has  been  clearly  proved, 
of  seeking  elsewhere  than  among  the  prosimia;  for  the  link 
which  is  required  between  the  marsupials  and  the  apes, 
would  not  invalidate  the  relationship  between  the  latter  and 
man.  There  are,  huwever,  otiier  facts  which  arc  irreconcilable 
with  the  theory. 

M.  Pruner  Bey,  resuming  the  dcscrij)tive  and  anatomical 
works  which  have  been  carried  on  till  within  the  hist  fuw 
years,  has  shown  that  the  comparison  of  man  with  the 
anthropomorphous  apes  brings  to  light  a  fact  which  is  sub- 
ject to  very  fc-w  exceptions,  the  existence,  namely,  of  an 
'inverse  order  in  the  development  of  the  principal  organs. 
The  researches  of  Welker  upon  the  sphenoidal  angle  of 
Virchow  lead  to  the  same  conclusion,  for  in  man  the  angle 
diminishes  from  the  time  of  birth,  whilst  in  the  ape  it  is 
always  increasing,  so  much  so  that  sometimes  it  is  effiiced. 
]t  is  upon  the  base  of  the  cranium  that  the  Cierman  anatomist 
has  remarked  this  inverse  onhr,  the  importance  of  which 
cannot  escape  notice. 

A  similar  contrast  has  been  remarked  by  (jratiolet  upon 
the  brain   itself.     'J'lie   following  are   his  observations  upon 


Ilacckcrs   Theories — Pithecoid  Afan.         1 1 1 

this  subject.  In  the  ape  the  temporal  sphenoidal  convolu- 
tions, which  form  tlio  mifldlc  lobe,  make  their  appearance 
and  are  completed  before  the  anterior  convolutions  whicli 
form  the  frontal  lobe.  In  man,  on  the  contrary,  the  frontal 
Convolutions  are  the  first  to  appear,  and  those  of  the  middle 
lobe  are  formed  later. 

It  is  evident,  especially  after  the  most  fundamental 
principles  of  Darwinism,  that  an  orf^aiiiscd  being  cannot  be 
a  descendant  of  another  whose  development  is  in  an  inverse 
order  to  its  own.  Consequently,  in  accordance  with  these 
principles,  man  cannot  be  considered  as  the  descendant  of 
any  simian  type  whatever. 

VII.  I  have  said  above  that  palaeontology  has  never  shown 
anything  which  recalls  in  the  slightest  degree  the  hypothetical 
2>'(thecoid  man  of  Haeckel.  A  hope  was  felt  that  what  could 
not  be  found  among  extinct  forms  might  be  found  among 
living  ones.  Vogt  has  compared  the  brain  of  microcephali 
to  that  of  the  anthropomorphous  apes,  and  Haeckel  has 
repre.sented  in  his  genealogical  table  of  idiots,  cretins  and 
microcephali  as  actual  representatives  of  his  speechless  rnan. 
These  beings,  with  their  small  brain  and  incomplete  faculties, 
are,  according  to  these  two  naturalists,  cases  of  atavism,  and 
recal  the  normal  state  of  our  most  remote  direct  ancestors. 

Here  we  have  another  instance  of  the  curious  method  of 
rea,soning  familiar  to  Darwinists.  Microcephalism,  idiotcy, 
r\nd  cretinism  constitute  so  many  tcratological  or  pathological 
-tates.  Tliey  belong,  consequently,  to  the  very  numerous 
groups  of  facts  which  have  long  been  studied.  If  some  of 
these  facts  can  be  regarded  as  j'henomena  of  atavis'in,  why 
hould  it  be  otherwise  with  the  rest?  Why  attribute  to 
itavism  a  single  character  only  in  crdtins  and  microcephali, 
and  refer  the  other  to  teratology  and  pathology  ?  This  is 
evidently  an  entirely  arbitrary  kind  of  treatment,  and  as 
nuich  opposed  as  possible  to  the  true  scientific  method. 

After  the  works  of  teratologists,  after  the  experiments  of 
Geoffroy,  so  ably  resumed  and  completed  by  M.  Dareste,  the 
part  played  by  pathogenic  causes,  even  by  external  causes,  in 
6 


112  The  Hitman  Species. 

arrested  development  cannot  be  denied.  Now  microcephalism 
is  notliing  else  than  arrested  development  acting  on  the 
cranium  and  its  contents.  But  this  is  not  an  isolated  case. 
Other  organs  and  functions  in  microcephali  suffer  in  the 
same  manner.  They  have  been  proved  to  be  always  sterile, 
and  certainly  sterility  is  not  a  phenomenon  which  can  be 
referred  to  atavism. 

Thus  among  microcephali  a  teratogenic  cause  is  clearly 
proved  to  have  acted  on  part  of  the  organism,  viz.,  the 
generative  organs.  What  reason  can  be  alleged  for  attri- 
buting alterations  of  the  cranium  and  brain  to  an  entirely 
different  cause  ?  By  virtue  of  what  principle  can  two  facts 
be  separated,  which  observation  has  shown  to  be  so  inti- 
mately connected  with  each  other  ?  Why  should  the  fir.st 
be  appealed  to  as  an  argument  and  nothing  said  about  the 
second  ?  Is  it  not  evident  that  this  is  an  entirely  arbitrary 
kind  of  procedure,  and  actuated  solely  by  the  requirements 
(jf  tlieory  ? 

The  general  plan  of  the  brain  is  fundamentally  the  same  in 
all  the  mammalia  and  in  man.  Upon  this  point,  as  upon 
every  otlicr,  the  resemblance  is  greatest  when  the  latter  is 
compared  with  the  anthropomorphous  apes.  AVhen,  for  some 
reason  or  other,  his  brain  is  altered  and  n-duced,  as  in  the 
njicrocejjhali,  is  it  at  all  surprising  that  fresh  rescnd)hinccs 
should  arise.     The  contrary  would  be  unintelligible. 

This  is  a  fact  up(»n  wliich  Vngt  has  especially  insistcil,  and 
lie  has  described  frum  this  point  of  view  several  interesting 
details  wliich  render  less  general  some  of  the  results  obtained 
by  M.  Gratiulet.  But  it  is  a  rumarkablo  fact  that  these 
new  relations  are  not  establislied  with  the  most  higiily  de- 
veloped ujxs,  but  willi  the  taikd  apes  of  the  new  world, 
with  tlif  jilntyrrJiliii,  which  are  excluded  by  llaeckel  anil 
Darwin  from  the  human  anc(;stral  series.  Thus,  tiie  \hi\- 
winian  theory  it«elf  protests  against  the  compari.son  between 
the  microcephali  and  our  pretended  pithecoid  ancestors 

'J'h«;  relations  wiii<.h  wt;  arc;  discussing  d<j  not,  moreover, 
jeach  a  similarity  wliich   would  authorise  the  conclusions  of 


Vo^i's   Theories — Simian   Characters.        1 1  3 

the  Cenc'vcse  savant.  The  brains  of  microcephali,  thon<;h 
often  less  vohiniinous  and  less  convoluted  than  those  of  the 
anthropoid  apes,  according  to  Gratiolct,  do  not  become  at 
all  similar  to  them.  This  proposition  is  confirmed  by  the 
work  of  ^^ogt. 

The  ca.se  is  the  ?ame  with  the  skeleton  as  with  the  brain. 
I  will  here  appeal  to  an  authority,  which  none  of  my  adver- 
saries can  reject,  that,  namely,  of  Huxley.  After  having 
l>rotested  against  the  statements  of  those  who  declare  "that 
the  structural  differences  between  man  and  apes  are  small 
and  insignificant,"  the  eminent  anatomist  adds  that  "every 
bone  of  the  gorilla  bears  a  mark  by  which  it  can  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  corresponding  human  bone,  and  that,  in 
the  present  state  of  creation  at  least,  no  intermediary  being 
fills  the  gap  which  separates  man  from  the  troglodyte." 
In  the  general  conclusion  of  his  book,  Huxley  moreover  re- 
cognises the  fact  that  the  fossil  human  remains  hitherto  dis- 
covered do  not  indicate  any  approach  towards  the  pithecoid 
form. 

Vni.  After  the  formal  declarations  of  a  naturalist,  whose 
harwinian  convictions  place  him  beyond  all  suspicion  of 
partiality,  how  is  it  that  we  continually  fiuil  the  expression 
airman  character  employed  a  propos  of  the  most  insignificant 
modifications  of  some  human  type  of  which  no  one  gives  a 
precise  description  ?  It  is,  to  say  the  least,  an  abu.se  of 
words,  against  which  I  have  often  protested.  We  have  ju.st 
seen  that  this  expression  assumes  an  anatomical  fact  which 
docs  not  exist,  and  which,  con.sequently,  constitutes  an  error. 
It  ha.s,  moreover,  the  inconvenience  of  being  understood 
literally  by  the  ignorant,  and  .sometimes  of  deceiving  even 
•  educated  men,  and  of  giving  rise  to  a  belief  in  imaginary 
tlegradations  and  comparisons. 

In  fact,  man  and  the  rest  of  the  vertcbrata  are  con.structed 
upon  the  same  fundamental  plan.  Between  him  and  the 
other  members  of  this  group  numerous  relations  exist. 
Organi.sed  beings  arc  not  crystals  whoso  forms  are  mathe- 
matically defined  ;  with   the  former  the  whole  of  the  body 


114  ^-^'^  Hum  an  Species. 

and  each  part  of  this  whole  oscillate  between  limits  whose 
extent  has  not  yet  been  fixed,  but  which  is  at  times  con- 
siderable. By  these  very  oscillations  the  customary  relations 
are  continually  modified,  not  only  between  man  and  the 
apes,  but  between  man  and  the  rest  of  the  vertebrata.  If 
we  compare  man  to  any  anlinal  type  whatever,  if  we  apply 
the  same  method  ttj  this  cuinparisun,  and  the  same  termino- 
logy, we  shall  arrive  at  singular  conclusions.  I  will  cpiote  a 
single  example. 

The  most  important  fact  in  connection  with  the  brain  is 
certainly  not  its  aUsolute  development.  It  is  the  relation  of 
this  development  to  that  of  the  rest  of  the  body.  The  agree- 
ment upon  this  point,  when  animals  arc  the  subject  of  discus- 
sion, is  general.  It  should  be  the  same  when  the  discussion 
is  on  man.  Undoubtedly  upon  this  gi'ound  of  relative 
superiority  or  inferiority,  upon  which  certain  anthropologists 
so  readily  take  their  stand  a  propos  of  races  or  individuals, 
the  relations  of  which  I  speak  constitute  one  of  the  most 
striking  and  essential  cliaracters. 

I  subjoin  some  of  these  relations  taken  from  a  table  of 
Duvcnioy,  and  in  which  the  weight  of  the  brain  is  taken 
as  unit  v. 


Man  • 


Ki.1.1  Mouse       .     1  :  :n 

M<ms«!    .         .     .     1  :  »;» 

\  Adult  .         .         .      1  :  :{0       ,.       .  i  Moh:  .  .  .      1  :  :»(> 

(old       .       .       .    .    1:3.-;     ^•"•'"^'"'■^iDofrs     .    i:i;i::jor, 

lUue  Tit     .         .     1  :  12 


Saimiri        ...  1  :  22  ]  ( 'aiiary  .  ..1:11 

.        y  Sai          ....  1:2.-.  r.ir.ls  .     . -CmIo  Tit  .         .     1  :  IH 

■'^''*''  .  Ouihiiiii      .         .         .  1  :  2S  Spjirniw  .     .     1:25 

<iil.l".ii  .         .         .     .  1  :  IS  (('liiilliacli  .          .     1  :  27 


Thu  ni.'in  in  (jinstion  is  tin,-  JOuropean  White.  Now  from 
tlii«  table  we  sec  that  fmm  infancy  to  old  age  the  relation 
of  the  brain  to  the  rest  of  the  body  ki.'cps  diminishing.  Are 
we  to  conclude  then  from  this  that  the  youth  is  deijraded 
relatively  to  tlic  infant,  and  that  the  adult  or  the  old  man 
has  a.ssumed  a  n'nnUni  rhdvartcr  f 

We  Kcc,  moreover,  that  there  ought  to  bo  some  under- 
standing nn  to  the  word  simian  itself.     If  the  gibbon,  which 


hitcllectual  Development —  Wallaces   Theories.      1 1 5 

belongs  to  the  type  of  our  supposed  ancestors,  lias  a  brain 
relatively  smaller  than  ours,  it  is  otherwise  with  the  three 
niembors  of  the  genus  ccbus  given  in  the  table.  The  latter 
are  superior  to  the  anthropoid  ;  the  two  first  show  exactly 
the  same  relation  as  the  infant  and  youth  ;  the  third  sur- 
passes the  adult  man.  But  all  three  arc  surpassed  by  the 
two  tits  and  the  canary. 

Consequently,  if  wc  are  right  in  regarding  the  human 
lace,  or  the  human  individual  whose  brain  is  below  the 
mean  by  several  giammes,  as  tending  towards  the  anthro- 
poid ape,  we  ought  to  consider  the  race,  or  the  individual 
whose  brain  is  above  the  mean  as  approximating  to  the 
cebus,  or  even  the  pas.serines  or  conirostrcs.  If  the  first 
comparison  is  admissible,  the  second  is  equally  so. 

We  can  then  say  with  the  learned  anatomist  whose  autho- 
rity I  have  so  often  appealed  to:  "The  microcephali,  how- 
ever reduced  their  l)rain  may  be,  are  not  brutes  ;  they  are 
merely  undeveloped  men."  Or  again,  we  may  say  with 
M.  Best,  whose  testimony  cannot  be  suspected  in  such  a 
matter,  that  in  their  development  apes  do  not  resemble 
man,  and,  conversely,  that  the  human  type  when  degraded 
iloes  not  resemble  the  ape. 

IX.  From  the  pithecoid  man  of  Darwin  and  Haeckel, 
from  the  speechless  man  who  used  his  teeth  a.s  weapons, 
to  the  man  of  our  age,  the  distance  is  still  very  great.  IIow 
has  it  been  filk-d  up  ?  lIow  has  this  intelligence  been 
developeil  which  is  able  in  many  ca.ses  to  hold  nature  herself 
ill  subjection  ?  It  is  Wallace  who  has  especially  answered 
this  qiiestion  in  the  name  of  the  theor}'  of  which  he  is  one 
of  the  fotuiders.  We  shall  .see  at  the  same  time  that  he 
aihuits  the  imperfection  of  this  theory,  when  lie  discusses  the 
|K'Cidiar  attributes  of  the  human  .species. 

It  is  well  known  that  this  naturali.st  shares  with  Darwin 
and  M.  Naudin,  the  honour  of  liaving  .sought  in  natural 
selection  for  an  explanation  of  organic  origins.  But  our 
fellow  countryman  ha.s  confined  himself  to  a  sketch  tho 
fundamental    character   of   which   he    has    recently   entirely 


Ii6  The  Ilttnian  Species. 

modified.  Darwin  has  embraced  the  problem  as  a  whoh? 
and  in  its  details  ;  he  has  added  to  his  first  work  several 
publications  upon  subjects  very  ditferent  in  appearance,  but 
all  of  which  tend  to  the  same  end.  He  may  with  justice 
be  considered  as  the  chief  of  the  school. 

Wallace,  who  almost  anticipated  Darwin  in  the  publi- 
cation of  ideas  which  are  common  to  both,  recognises  him 
as  his  master  on  all  occasions.  He  has  di.scussed  a  small 
number  of  points  in  special  memoirs  which  never  cover 
much  <(round.  From  not  attemptincj  the  solution  of  all  the 
(jucstions  suggested  by  the  theory,  he  has  neither  met  with 
so  many  or  such  serious  difficulties  as  his  eminent  rival. 
This,  perhaps,  explains  the  fact  that  he  generally  shows 
liimself  more  preci.se  and  logical.  He  therefore,  always 
possessed  considerable  authority  among  the  partisans  of 
Darwinism,  until  ho  published  his  special  views  on  man. 

According  to  \\  ■.\\\o.Q,(i,  mimcdlaic  and  i>cviomd  utility  ih 
the  only  cau.se  which  .sets  selection  in  action.  This  is  funda- 
mentally the  theory  of  Darwin  ;  but  the  hitter  has  allowed 
himself  to  be  influenced  by  comparisons  or  metaphors,  which 
have  rai.sed  sharp  criticisms,  which  have  perhaps  deceived 
hirn,  and  which  he  employs  more  or  less  to  evade  his 
difficulties.  We  never  meet  with  the  same  in  Wallace,  who 
accepts  all  the  consetniences  to  which  his  ab.solutc  principle 
leads  him. 

According  to  Wall.'vce,  vtiliii/  (dune  is  able  to  account  for 
the  manner  in  which  inferior  animal  forms  could  have  pro- 
duced apes,  and  afterwards  a  being  having  almost  all  the 
physical  characters  of  man  as  l)o  is  now.  This  race  live<l 
in  herds  scattered  throughout  the  hot  regions  of  the  ancient 
continent.  It  was  not,  however,  wanting  in  true  sociability  ; 
it  possessed  the  perception  of  senKation.s,  but  was  incapal)l(j 
of  thought;  moral  sense  and  sympathetic  feelings  were  un- 
known to  it.  Jt  was  still  only  a  material  outline  of  the 
liuman  being,  yet  superior  to  the  tailed  man  of  l>arwin,  and 
t(»  the  pithecoid  man  of  Haeekel. 

Towards    the    eaili<r    p.-nt    of    the    ti  rljary    period,    adds 


Intellectual  Development —  Wallace  s   Theories.      1 1 7 

Wallace,  an  unknoion  cause  began  to  accelerate  the  de- 
velopment of  the  intelli^'ence  in  this  anthropoid  being.  It 
soon  played  a  preponderating  part  in  the  existence  of  man. 
The  perfection  of  this  facnlty  became  incomparably  more 
useful  than  any  other  organic  modification.  Henceforward 
the  pcnverfid  modifying  agent  of  selection  acted  necessarily 
almost  entirely  in  this  direction.  The  physical  characters 
already  acquired  remained  almost  unaltered,  while  the  organs 
of  the  intelligence  and  the  intelligence  itself  were  perfected 
more  and  more  in  each  generation.  Animals  unaffected  by 
this  unloioivii  cause  which  separates  us  from  them,  con- 
tinued to  undergo  morphological  transmutations,  so  that 
since  the  Miocene  epoch  tlicre  has  been  a  great  change  in 
the  terrestrial  fauna.  With  man  only  did  the  form  remain 
the  same.  We  ought  not,  therefore,  to  be  surprised  to  find 
in  the  Quaternary  epoch  skulls  like  those  of  Denisc  and 
Engis,  resembling  those  of  men  of  the  present  age. 

The  superiority  acquired  by  the  intelligence  has,  moreover, 
removed  our  race  for  ever  from  the  law  of  the  action  of 
rnorpkologlcal  transmutations.  His  intellectual  and  moral 
faculties  only  are  from  this  time  subject  to  the  power  of 
selection,  which  will  cause  the  disappearance  of  inferior 
races  and  their  replacement  by  a  new  race,  the  lowest 
individual  of  which  would  be,  in  our  time,  a  superior  man. 

After  having  read  the  pages,  of  which  I  have  just  made  a 
summary,  we  cannot  but  be  surprised  to  find  Wallace  declare 
that  natural  selection  by  itself  is  inculpable  of  producing 
from  an  anthropoid  animal,  a  man  such  as  we  find  in,  the 
most  savage  nations  known  to  us.  He  thus  makes  the 
human  sjK'cies  an  exception  to  the  laws,  which,  according  to 
him,  rule  all  other  living  beings.  There  is  a  double  interest 
in  following  Darwin's  rival  in  this  new  path. 

Wallace  l>egins  by  reminding  us  that  natural  selection 
rests  entirely  upon  the  principle  of  immediate  utility,  re- 
lative only  to  the  conditions  of  the  struggle  maintained  at 
the  time  by  the  individuals  constituting  the  species.  Darwin 
in  all  his  works  ileclares,  on  different  occasions,  this  same 


Ii8  The  II lima fi  S/>ccics. 

principle,  upon  whicli  rests,  in  fact,  all  his  statements  upon 
adaptation,  the  possibility  of  retrogressive  trans7nutations, etc. 

It  results  necessarily  from  this  principle,  that  selection 
cannot  produce  variations  in  any  way  injurions  to  any 
being  whatever.  Darwin  has  often  declared  that  a  single 
well-attested  case  of  this  kind  would  destroy  liis  whole 
theory. 

But  it  is  evident,  adds  Wallace,  that  selection  is  as  incapa- 
ble of  producing  a  useless  variation ;  it  cannot  then  develop 
an  organ  in  proportions  which  would  go  beyond  its  degree  of 
present  utility. 

Now  Wallace  shews  very  clearly  that  in  tlie  savage  there 
are  organs  whose  development  is  out  of  all  proportion  with 
their  presold  utility,  and  even  faculties  and  physical  cha- 
racters which  are  either  useless  or  injurious,  at  least  to  the 
individual.  "  But,"  says  he,  "  if  it  can  be  proved  that  these 
iiiodiHcations,  tliouijh  dangerous  or  useless  at  the  time  of 
their  first  appearance,  have  become  much  more  useful,  and 
are  now  indispensable  to  the  complete  development  of  the 
intellectual  and  mural  nature  of  man,  we  oujjht  to  believe 
in  tlie  existence  of  aii  intelligent  action,  foreseeing  and  pro- 
viding for  the  future,  just  as  we  .'should  d«»,  when  we  see  a 
breeder  set  to  work  to  produce  a  definite  imj)n)Vement  in 
any  direction  in  any  cultivated  i)lant  or  domestic  animal." 

The  relative  development  of  the  body  and  the  brain,  the 
organ  of  intelligence,  is  one  of  the  points  upon  which  our 
author  insists  most  strongly.  The  height  of  the  orang,  ho 
Hay.s,.  la  almost  equal  to  that  of  man  ;  the  gorilla  is  much 
taller  and  bigger.  Nevertheless,  if  we  represent  by  ten  the 
average  volume  of  the  brain  in  the  anthropoid  apes,  this 
>ame  volume  will  bo  represented  by  twenly-si.x  in  savages, 
and  by  lliirly-two  in  civilised  men.  'Jlie  Knglish  naturalist 
also  makcM  the  remark,  that  among  savages,  tlic  Es(|uimaii.\, 
for  instance,  we  find  individuals  the  capacity  of  whose  skull 
almost  reaches  the  inaxiiiium  which  is  given  for  the  most 
highly  (levelo|)e<l  nations. 

Finally,     Wallace,    relying    upon     the    expi  riments    and 


Intcllcclual  Development—  Wallace's   Theories.      1 1 9 

calculations  of  Gallon,  admits  distinctly  that  though  tlio 
brain  of  savages  is  to  that  of  civilised  man  in  the  proportion 
of  five  to  six,  the  intellectual  manifestations  are,  at  the 
most,  that  of  one  to  one  thousand.  The  material  develop- 
ment is,  then,  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  function.  A 
hrain,  a  little  more  voluminous  than  that  of  the  gorilla, 
would,  in  the  eyes  of  the  eminent  traveller,  be  perfectly 
.s\ifficiont  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  Andaman  Islands,  of 
Australia,  Tasmania,  and  Ticrra  del  Fuego. 

Wallace  explains  the  development  of  the  ideas  of  justice 
and  benevolence  by  the  advantages  which  would  result  from 
them  to  the  tribe  and  to  each  individual.  But  faculties 
essentially  individual,  and  without  immediate  utility  to 
others,  are  not  subject,  according  to  him,  to  selection. 
"  How,"  says  he,  "  could  the  struggle  for  existence,  the 
victory  of  the  most  fitted  and  natural  selection  give  any 
aid  to  the  development  of  mental  faculties,"  such  as  ideal 
conceptions  of  space  and  time,  of  eternity  and  infinity,  the 
artistic  feeling,  abstract  ideas  of  number  and  form,  without 
which  arithmetic  and  geometry  are  impossible  ? 

For  a  much  more  cogent  reason,  the  development  of  the 
moral  sense  in  the  savage  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  con- 
siderations taken  from  ut'ditu,  whether  individual  or  collec- 
tive. Wallace  insists  upon  this  p^int  at  some  length  ;  he 
(juotes  examples  which  prove  that  this  feeling  exists,  in  all 
which  is  most  delicate  ami  most  opposed  to  utilitarian 
notions,  among  the  most  savage  tribes  of  Central  Indiji.  We 
coidd  give  many  examples  of  this  fact ;  among  others,  that 
the  Ked-skins  liave  the  greatest  respect  for  their  word  of 
honour,  though  it  should  entail  torture  and  death. 

Our  author  bases  numerous  arguments  upon  the  physical 
examination  of  man.  "  It  is  perfectly  certain,"  he  says, 
"  that  natural  .selection  could  not  have  produced  the  present 
naked  Iwdy  of  man  from  an  ancestor  covered  with  hair,  for 
such  a  modification,  far  from  being  useful,  would  be  injuiious, 
at  least  in  certain  respects;"  in  civilised  man  a  number 
of  movements  are  executed  bv  the  hand  of  which  savages 


I20  The  IluDian  Species, 

have  not  the  slightest  idea,  although  no  anatomical  differ- 
ence exists  in  the  structure  of  the  superior  members ;  the 
larynx  of  our  singers  is  constructed  similarly  to  that  of 
savages,  and,  nevertheless,  what  a  contrast  between  the 
sounds  produced  ! 

From  all  these  facts  Wallace  concludes  that  the  brain, 
hand,  and  larynx  of  savages  possess  hitent  cqytitades,  which 
being  temporarily  useless  cannot  be  attributed  to  natural 
selection.  Man,  moreover,  has  not  the  power  of  acquiring 
them  himself.  Foreign  intervention  therefore  is  necessary, 
for  the  explanation  of  their  existence.  Wallace  attributes 
this  intervention  to  a  su2^cvlor  intell'njcnce  which  acted  on 
the  human  species,  just  as  the  latter  has  acted  on  the 
ruck-pigeon  to  produce  from  it  the  pouter  or  the  carrier, 
and  which  employed  analogous  processes. 

In  short,  natural  selection,  regulated  by  the  laws  of  nature 
only,  is  sufficient  to  produce  wild  species ;  artificial  or 
human  selection  can  produce  improved  races  of  animals 
and  plants  ;  a  kind  of  divine  selection  must  have  produced 
the  present  man,  and  can  alone  bring  him  to  the  highest 
pitch  of  intellectual  and  moral  development. 

In  advancing  this  latter  hypothesis,  Wallace  declares 
that  it  no  more  impairs  tho  theory  of  natural  selection  than 
the  latter  is  weakened  by  the  fact  of  artificial  selection. 
Ft;w,  I  think,  will  accept  this  proposition.  The  chief  apology 
lor  Darwinism  in  the  eyes  of  men  of  science,  its  great  charm 
to  all  its  partisans,  lies  in  the  pretensions  which  it  puts 
forward  of  coini(.'Cting  organic  origins,  those  of  man  as  well 
as  those  of  plant.s,  with  the  single  action  of  second  causes  ; 
and  to  explain  tho  present  state  of  living  beings  by  physical 
and  physiological  laws,  just  as  gi-ology  and  astri»nomy  explain 
the  j)resent  state  of  the  material  world  entirely  by  tho 
general  laws  of  matter.  In  making  tho  intervention  of  an 
intclllffciif  tf'ill  n(,'ces.sary  for  the  realisation  of  the  human 
Itcing,  Wallace  has  set  himself  in  opposition  to  the  very 
■  •-i.scnce  of  tho  theory.  Such  is  the  ojjinion  of  most  Darwin- 
Hts,  who  have  treated  him  somewhat  as  a  deseiter. 


AI.  Naiidins   Theories.  1 2  i 

I  am  not  therefore  called  upon  to  examine  this  latter 
hypothesis  of  Wallace.  I  am,  however,  at  liberty  to  stiitc 
that  most  of  the  facts,  which  have  induced  one  of  the 
founders  of  Darwinism  to  separate  from  his  chief  upon  so 
important  a  point,  retain  all  their  value  as  objections.  The 
mistake  of  Wallace  consists  in  failing  to  see  that  his 
statements  upon  the  subject  of  man  apply  equally  to 
animals,  and  Claparetle  has  justly  reproached  him  with  a 
want  of  logic  on  this  point.  He  ha.s  been  less  happy  in  the 
answers  which  he  has  made  to  his  old  ally.  Doubtles.s,  he 
who  regards  the  question  exclusively  from  a  Darwinian 
point  of  view,  and  accepts  as  true  everything  which  I  have 
endeavoured  to  shew  to  be  false,  will  readily  find  a  solution 
for  many  of  the  difficulties  raised  by  Wallace.  But  his 
sUitements  upon  hitent  ajitUiules,  upon  the  superior  facul- 
ties of  the  human  niind,  and  upon  the  moral  sense,  are  very 
difficult  to  refute,  Claperede  has  only  alluded  to  the 
former.  Darwin  has  attempted  to  go  further ;  but  his 
theories  and  hypotheses  upon  these  important  questions  do 
not  appear  to  me  to  have  given  much  .satisfaction  to  the 
most  devoted  of  his  followers.  I  cannot  here  enter  into  a 
•liscu.ssion,  which,  to  have  any  value,  should  be  carried  to 
some  length,  and  1  refer  the  reader  to  the  work  upon  the 
Descent  of  Man,  and  to  my  articles  in  the  Journal  des 
Savants, 

X,  I  Ciinnot  clo.se  this  short  account  of  the  origins,  which 
have  been  attributed  to  man  during  late  years,  without 
mentioning  the  new  theory  which  luxs  lately  been  put 
forward  by  an  eminent  botanist,  to  whose  works  I  have 
often  had  to  allude.  M,  Naudin  has  been  one  of  the  most 
important  of  Darwin's  precursors.  Six  years  before  the 
Engli.sli  naturalist,  he  compared  the  action  exercised  by 
natural  forces  in  the  production  of  species  to  the  methods 
usc«l  by  man  in  obtaining  races;  he  admitted  the  deriva- 
tion unA  filiation  of  species;  he  compared  the  vegetable 
kingdom  to  a  tree  "  where  roots,  mysteriously  hidden  in 
the   depths   of  cosmogcnic   time,   have    produced   a   limited 


122  The  Tin  man  S/^ccics. 

number  of  brandies  successively  divided  and  subdiviiled. 
The  first  branches  represent  the  primordial  types  of  the 
kingdom,  the  subsequent  ramifications  the  existnig  species." 
We  cannot  fail  to  recognise  in  these  words  an  idea  very 
similar  to  Darwinism. 

M.  Naudin  now  proposes  an  evolution  theortj  -which  is 
very  difiercnt.  He  "entirely  excludes  the  hypothesis  of 
natural  selection,  unless  the  sense  of  the  word  is  changed 
so  as  to  make  it  synonymous  with  sui^ival."  He  rejects 
no  less  strongly  the  idea  of  gradual  transmutations,  which 
require  millions  of  years  to  effect  the  transmutation  of  a 
single  plant.  He  insists,  on  the  contrary,  upon  the  sudden- 
ness with  which  most  of  the  variations  observed  in  plants 
havtj  been  produced,  and  regards  it  as  a  representation  of 
what  must  have  taken  place  in  the  successive  genesis  of 
living  beings.  Let  us  remark  in  p;vssing,  that  Darwin,  in 
the  last  edition  of  his  work  recognises  the  reality  of  these 
sudden  hajis,  which  have  taken  place  without  transitions 
between  one  generation  and  another,  and  confesses  that  he 
has  not  taken  sullicient  account  of  them  in  his  earlier 
writings. 

M.  Naudin  admits  the  existence  of  a  protoplasma  or 
primordial  hiasiema,  the  origin  of  which  he  does  not 
I>retcnd  to  explain  nor  its  entrance  into  action.  Under 
the  influence  of  the  onjano-idaslic  or  evolutive  force  there 
w(,n;  formed  2)^'ofo-or(janism8  of  a  very  simple  structure, 
.is.xuai,  and  endowed  with  the  power  of  producing  by  buds 
and  with  a  great  activity  rne.so-or(i<iuif<ws,  similar  to  the 
lirht,  though  already  tnore  comi)licatfd.  With  each  genera- 
tion forms  are  multiplied,  and  become  more  pronounced,  and 
nature  rapidly  payses  on  to  the  a<lull  stale.  The  beings  in 
(|Uestion  were  not,  however,  species.  They  were  not  com- 
plelc  beings,  but  merely  a  kind  of  larvfc,  whose  sole  duty 
w.xs  to  Hcrvt;  as  transitions  between  tiie  primitive  blastema 
and  the  definite  forms.  l)iKpcrsed  in  different  regions  of 
the  globe,  they  have  carried  everywhere  the  germs  of  future 
forms  which   evolution   liad   to   produce  from   them.     From 


lif.  Naudins   Theories.  123 

tho  creative  cliaracter  which  distinguished  it  at  first,  the 
evohitive  force  exhausted  by  its  very  action,  acquired  a 
j^n'ftcri'ddvc  character.  Forms  are  now  integrated.  They 
preserve,  however,  a  residue  of  plasticity ;  they  vary  under 
the  iiithu'iice  of  certain  conditions,  and  hence  results  the 
tnuhitude  of  forms  wliich  the  same  species  now  presents. 

The  proto-  and  meso-organisms  contained  in  themselves, 
each  according  to  its  position  in  the  order  of  evohition,  tho 
rudiments  of  kingdoms,  branches,  classes,  orders,  families, 
and  genera.  Points  where  they  were  fixed,  became  so  many 
centres  of  creation.  Moreover,  they  liave  not  engendered 
simulUineously  all  the  forms  wliich  they  were  capable  of 
producing.  There  have  been  considerable  intervals  between 
the  production  of  living  beings,  which  explains  why  groups 
of  the  same  order  have  not  been  contemporaneous. 

Organic  types,  even  those  least  marked,  have  not  passed 
into  each  other.  The  paths  followed  by  the  evolutive  force 
have  always  been  divergent.  "  Let  us  picture  to  ourselves," 
says  M.  Naudin,  "  the  meso-organism  which  has  been  tiie 
source  of  the  mammalia ;  ever  since  its  appearance,  all  the 
mammalian  orders,  including  the  human  order,  were  ferment- 
ing in  it.  Before  their  appearance,  they  were  virtually 
tlistinct,  in  the  sense  that  the  evolutive  forces  were  already 
distributed,  and  the  method  of  their  effecting,  each  in  its 
proju^r  time,  the  production  of  the.se  different  orders,  already 
detined.  This  is  a  similar  phenomenon  to  that  of  the 
evolution  of  organs  in  a  growing  embryo,  where  we  see 
springing  from  a  common  and  uniform  origin,  parts  at  first 
similar,  but  which  are  impelled  in  a  determinate  direction 
each  by  its  own  particular /m/mj^." 

M.  Naudin,  as  we  see,  in  order  to  support  his  theorv, 
a})peals  to  the  embryogenic  phenomena,  to  which  the 
Darwinists  also  look  for  testimony  in  favour  of  their  doc- 
trines. The  learned  botanist,  howi-ver,  attaches  much  more 
importance  to  the  n)etamori»hoscs  which  take  place  subse- 
quently to  the  eg^.  He  recognises  ti-ue  proto-organiama 
in  the  prf)-emlir}o  of  mo.sses,  in  the  larvrr  of  insects,  and  of 


I  24  The  Iluuian  Species. 

many  otlicr  inferior  animals.  He  lays  particular  stress  upon 
tlie  phenomena  of  alternate  generation,  as  representing  what 
has  already  taken  place,  or  better,  as  representing  in  part 
"  the  ancient  and  general  process  of  creation." 

According  to  M.  Naudin,  man  was  subject  to  the  common 
law.  and  the  Mosaic  account  is  at  the  same  time  very  true 
and  full  of  instruction.  In  its  first  phase,  mankind  was 
concealed  within  a  temporary  organism,  aheady  distinct  from 
all  others,  and  incapable  of  contracting  an  alliance  with  any 
of  them.  This  is  Adam,  who  sprang  from  a  primordial 
jjla.stema  called  clay  in  the  Bible.  At  this  epoch,  he  was, 
])roperly  speaking,  neither  male  nor  female  ;  the  two  sexes 
were  not  yet  ditferentiatcd.  "  It  is  from  this  larval  form  of 
mankind,  that  the  evolutive  force  ctiocted  the  completion  of 
the  species.  For  the  accomplishment  of  this  great  phe- 
nomenon, Adam  had  to  pass  through  a  phase  of  immobility 
and  uncon.sciousness,  very  analogous  to  the  nymphal  state  of 
animals  undergoing  metamorphosis."  This  is  the  sleep 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  during  which  the  work  of  dilTorentia- 
tion  wa.s  accompli.^hed,  to  use  the  words  of  M.  Naudin,  by  a 
process  of  germination,  similar  to  that  of  medusa)  and 
.tscidians.  Mankind,  thus  constituted  pliysioI(»gically,  would 
n-'tain  a  sufhcient  evolutive  forc(;  for  tin'  rapid  ])roihu'tion  of 
the  various  great  human  races. 

J'assing  (jvcr  the  comparisons  tstublished  by  M.  Naudin,  I 
will  conline  myself  to  a  single  (observation  upon  all  these 
idea-s ;  properly  speaking,  tiny  do  not  form  a  scientijic 
I  lir  (>)•>/. 

When  w(;  fertilise  by  artificial  means  the  egg  of  a  frog,  we 
know  that  wo  determine  jin  entire  serids  of  phenomena, 
which  results  in  the  formation  of  a  germ,  then  in  that  of  an 
embryo,  which  will  be  cstabli.shed  by  a  succession  of  meta- 
morphoses,  in  that  of  a  tadpole,  which  will  be  cjjually  subject 
to  metamorphoHi.'s,  and  in  that  of  a  definite  animal  which  will 
assume  all  thcj  characters  of  the  Hpecie-s.  So  far  as  man 
can  maJce  a  hchuj,  we  iiuili'c  (i  fi'Ofj  when  w(;  fertilise  an  egg. 

If  the  fir4   cin)yfi,   with    which    M.    Naudin    immediately 


M.  Naudins   Theories. 


125 


connects  his  primordial  blastema,  has  made  potentially  in 
this  blastema  all  past,  present,  and  future  beings,  as  well 
as  the  power  of  producing  them  at  the  proper  time,  with 
all  their  distinctive  characters,  It  has,  in  reality,  created 
all  the.>e  beings  en  imisse.  We  do  not  see  what  kind  of 
action  is  reserved  for  second  causes;  unless  it  is,  perhaps, 
the  power  of  accelerating  or  retarding,  of  obstructing  or 
favouring  the  appearance  of  types  of  different  value,  when 
number  and  relations  have  been  immutably  determined 
beforehand.  But  M.  Naudin  has  not  even  mentioned  their 
part  in  this  evolution  of  the  organic  world.  That  science 
which  is  only  occupied  with  second  causes  has,  therefore, 
nothing  to  say  to  the  theory  of  M.  Naudin.  It  can  neither 
praise  nor  criticise  it. 

XL  To  explain  the  origin  of  the  world  in  which  we  live, 
that  of  beings  surrounding  us,  and  our  own,  is  evidently  one 
of  the  most  general  aspirations  of  the  human  mind.  The 
most  civilised  nations,  as  well  as  the  most  savage  tribes,  have 
satisfied  this  want  in  one  way  or  another.  Even  Australians, 
whatever  may  have  been  said  to  the  contrary,  have  their 
rudimentary  cosmogony,  which  those  who  have  taken  some 
interest  in  the  matter,  have  made  them  relate. 

In  all  cases,  man  has  at  first  connected  his  cosmogonic 
conceptions  with  his  religious  belief.  Then  among  the  most 
advanced  ancient  nations,  independent  spirits  have  sought 
for  an  explanation  of  nature  in  natural  j)hcnomena.  But 
from  want  of  precise  knowledge,  all  their  liypothetical  con- 
ceptions have  no  fundamental  value. 

With  us  also,  the  purely  religious  cosmogony  has  lon^- 
been  accepted  as  an  article  of  faith.  What  was  called 
science  was  confounded  with  dogma,  itself  rtlying  u|)on 
interpretations  of  the  Bible  in  harmony  with  the  knowkd-'o 
"f  the  time. 

Science,  properly  so  called,  is  entirely  the  creation  of 
modern  times.  The  rapiility,  the  grand»>'ur  of  its  develop. 
UKMits,  fill  one  of  the  most  magnificent  pages  of  human 
history.     Relying  entirely  upon  experiment  and  observation, 


I  26  TJic  Human  Species, 

it  could  not  fiiil  to  contradict  certain  beliefs,  which  were 
drawn  from  a  book  written  in  an  entirely  different  sense  to 
its  own,  and  explained  by  the  aid  of  data  which  were  incom- 
plete or  false.  Between  the  representatives  of  the  past  and 
those  of  the  new  era,  the  struggle  was  inevitable.  It  needed 
to  be  sharp,  and  it  was  so.     It  is  now  keener  than  ever. 

Circumstances  of  every  kind  have  destroyed  in  many 
minds  the  old  faith  of  our  ancestors.  Canied  away  by  the 
general  stream,  many  in  the  matter  of  religious  belief,  have 
arrived  at  ab.solute  denial.  The  need  of  an  explanation  of 
the  universe  is  still  felt  by  these  uneasy  minds ;  and  since 
they  have  no  belief  in  the  Bible,  they  have  turned  their 
attention  to  science. 

The  latter  has  already  given  them  magnificent  answers  in 
a,strouomy  and  in  geology.  Before  irrefutable  facts,  the 
later  u])holders  of  the  ancient  biblical  interpretations  have 
either  been  obliged  to  withdraw,  or  to  be  silent.  No  one 
believes  in  the  immobility  of  the  earth,  in  creation  having 
taken  place  in  six  days  of  twenty-four  hours  each,  or  in  the 
simultaneous  appearance  of  all  animals,  or  all  plants. 
Astronomy  has  made  known  to  us  the  genesis  of  worlds ; 
geuhtgy  has  taught  us  how  continents  and  seas,  valleys  an<l 
mountains  are  formed,  thus  evolving  some  of  the  grandest 
results  due  to  the  action  of  second  causes  in  the  inorganic 
empire. 

There  remains  the  organic  em[)ire,  plants,  animals,  and 
man  himself.  Here  curiosity  is  excited,  and  the  want  of 
cxpliination  becomes  more  pressing,  but  unfortunately  ob- 
servation and  experiment  are  e(|ually  at  fault. 

Some  men,  eminent  in  science  and  in  the  richness  of  their 
imaginations,  hiive  thought  themselves  able  to  do  withoiit  it. 
Ileviving  the  methods  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  they  have 
thought  it  possible  to  explain  living  nature  and  the  entire 
universe,  bv  conn»  cling  certain  farts  with  conceptions,  which 
are  almost  entirely  intellectual.  Once  started  in  this  path, 
they  arc  readily  elated  at  their  own  thoughts.  When  the 
jMmitivc  knowledge  which  has  been   accumulated  by  the  long 


Scientific  Doctrines  and  Religions  Dogmas.      \  2  7 

continued  labours  of  their  illustrious  predecessors,  has  em- 
barrassed their  speculations,  they  have  at  once,  so  to  speak, 
thrown  it  overboard  ;  they  have  pushed  to  the  utmost  the 
more  or  less  logical  development  of  their  a  prioH,  and  have 
nothing  but  irony  and  disdain  for  those  who  hesitate  to 
follow  them. 

These  men  could  not  but  excite  admiration.  They  spoke 
in  the  name  of  science  alone  ;  by  its  means  they  replied 
to  aspirations  perfectly  justifiable  on  such  a  topic  ;  they 
produced  theories  which  charmed  by  their  fulness  and  the 
apparent  precision  of  their  explanations.  They  were  able 
consequently  to  influence  even  those  men  of  science  who 
had  not  gone  to  the  bottom  of  things,  and  much  more  so  the 
general  public,  who  are  always  satisfied  to  believe  what  they 
are  told. 

The  nature  of  the  resistance  which  they  have  met  with 
from  time  to  time  was  calculated  to  increase  the  splendour 
of  their  triumph.  Men  as  imprudent  as  ill-judged  have 
attacked  them  in  the  name  of  dogma.  Scientific  discovery 
has  degenerated  into  controversy ;  both  parties  have  becomo 
excited,  and  in  the  two  camps  it  has  been  considered  neces- 
sary to  deny  all  the  statements  of  the  enemy ;  they  have 
vied  with  each  other  in  violence,  and  savants,  who  pretended 
to  speak  in  the  name  of  free  thought,  have  not  shown  them- 
selves the  less  intolerant. 

I  will  only  remind  the  one  party  of  the  trial  of  Galileo, 
and  the  other  of  the  theories  of  Voltaire  denying  the  exis- 
tence of  fos.sils. 

Others  have  resisted  the  impulse  of  the  time  ;  they  have 
remained  faithful  to  method,  the  mother  of  modern  science  ; 
they  have  carefully  preserved  their  inheritance  of  solid  and 
precise  knowledge,  acquired  from  past  centuries.  They  can- 
not on  that  account  be  accused  of  acting  from  routine  or  be 
considered  a.s  retrograding.  As  warmly  as  the  most  anient 
partisans  of  the  so-called  advanced  theories,  they  have 
}  pplauded  all  the  progress,  and  have  received  with  equal 
favour   new    ideas,  on   the  condition   of  expo.siiig    them    to 


128  TJic  Huuian  Species. 

experiment  and  observation.  But  when  tliey  meet  with 
questions  the  solution  of  wliich  is  at  present  impossible,  and 
will  perhaps  always  be  so,  they  liave  not  hesitated  to 
answer  : — we  DO  NOT  KNOW  ; — and  when  they  find  purely 
metaphysical  theories  are  being  imposed  upon  them,  they 
have  protested  in  the  name  of  experiment  and  observation." 

I  venture  to  say  that  I  have  always  remained  faithful  to 
the  ranks  of  this  phalanx,  to  which  the  future  distinctly 
belongs.  For  this  reason,  to  those  who  question  me  upon 
the  problem  of  our  origin,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  answer  in 
the  name  of  science  : — I  DO  not  know. 

I  do  not  on  that  account  anathematise  those  who  consider 
they  ought  to  act  otherwise,  nor  do  I  greatly  blame  their 
boldness.  The  study  of  second  causes  has  enabled  man  to 
explain  scientifically  the  present  constitution  of  the  in-- 
organic  world  ;  and  it  is  quite  legitimate  to  attempt  to 
account  for  the  present  state  of  the  organic  Avorld  by  causes 
of  the  same  nature ;  perhaps  success  will  one  day  Crown  our 
t'fTorts,  and  should  they  for  ever  remain  unrewarded,  as  they 
have  hitherto  done,  they  will  still  possess  a  certain  utility. 
'I'hese  efforts  of  the  imagination  provoke  new  research,  make 
now  openings,  and  thus  render  a  service  to  real  science  in 
the  world  of  facts,  as  well  as  in  that  of  ideas.  If  J)arwin 
had  not  been  actuated  by  his  preconceptions,  he  would  pro- 
li.ibly  never  have  {i(conij)lishL(l  his  excellent  work  upon  the 
l.>0  races  of  pigeons,  nor  developed  his  theory  of  the  struggle 
for  existence  and  natural  Relcction,  which  accounts  for  so 
many  facts. 

Unfortunately,  from  having  forgotten  the  works  of  their 
|)redecc88or8,  Darwin  and  his  followera  have  diawn  <  rroiieous 
(•onchisions  from  tlu-sf  pnini.scs.  They  imnginc  thoy  have 
L'ivcn  cxplanation.H  when  they  liave  given  none.  'J'his  is 
uliati  have  endeavoured  to  hIiow.  1  have  been  obliged  to 
M'.sunic  the  debate  ;  it  is  for  tlu-  inijiartial  and  unprejudiced 
reader  Uj  decide  between  us. 


BOOK  III. 

ANTIQUITY    OP    THE    HUMAN    SrECTES. 


CnAPTER    XII. 

AGE  OF  THE  miMAN  SPECIES. — PKESENT  GEOLOGICAL  EPOCH. 

I.  "Without  prejudging  tlic  future,  wc  have  been  obliged  to 
acknowledge  that  the  problem  of  the  specific  origin  of  man 
cannot  be  solved,  or  even  attempted,  Avith  the  scientific  data 
wliich  >vc  at  present  possess.  This  is  not  quite  so  much 
the  case  with  certain  questions  w  hich  arc  naturally  suggested 
to  tlie  mind  by  the  preceding. 

We  know  that  our  globe  lu\s  passed  through  several  geo- 
logical and  pala;ontological  epochs ;  that  living  beings  have 
not  api)eared  simultaneously,  and  that  the  present  fauna 
and  tlura  have  been  preceded  by  very  ditTerent  one^s.  It  is 
natural  to  iusk  the  (juestion,  when  njan  began  to  inhabit  the 
earth,  and  to  endeavour  to  determine  the  moment  of  the 
appearance  of  this  being,  so  similar  to  other  beings  in  many 
respect.*^,  so  exceptional  in  his  most  noble  faculties,  and 
.sujKjrior  to  everything  around  him. 

This  question  of  time  should  be  stated  precisely  ;  we  must 
understand  the  sense  which  may  be  attributed  to  it. 

Let  us  observe,  in  the  first  place,  that  here  wc  can  have  no 
dates  properly  so  called.  They  only  exist  in  history.  Now 
primitive  mankind  can  have  no  history  in  the  scientific  sense 
of  tiie  ■word.  ^lost  great  religions  have  endeavoured  to 
fill  up  this  gap.     But  my  readers  arc  already  aware  that  I 


130  The  Human  Species. 

have  refused  all  considerations  drawn  from  such  a  source, 
and  that  I  intend  to  bring  forward  here  none  but  the  results 
of  experiment  and  observation.  I  shall  then  try  how  far 
back  we  can  go  with  the  aid  of  these  guides  alone,  quoting 
in  the  first  place  a  few  historic  dates  as  terms  of  comparison. 

II.  The  Greeks  and  Romans,  with  whom  classical  educa- 
tion too  often  terminates,  do  not  take  us  very  far.  The 
former  had  much  more  ancient  records  than  the  latter,  and 
yet  the  era  of  the  Olympiads  only  brings  us  to  the  year  770 
before  our  era  ;  according  to  Hecateus  of  ^liletus,  it  was  in 
the  ninth  or  tenth  century  before  our  era  that  the  gods  ceased 
to  intermarry  with  mortals,  and  the  Trojan  war  is  regarded 
approximately  as  having  taken  place  in  the  eleventh  or  twelfth 
century.  Beyond  this  period,  it  is  evident  that  we  are  led 
by  Greece  into  mere  mythology,  or  rather  into  those  legen- 
dary times  wliL're  tnith  and  fable  are  confounded. 

The  Aryan  traditions  go  further.  M.  Vivien  de  Saint 
Martin,  simiming  up  the  works  of  which  he  is  so  good  a 
judge,  refers  the  arrival  of  the  Hindoos  on  the  river  of  Cabul 
to  about  the  sixteenth  or  eighteenth  century  before  our  era. 
These  tribes  were  only  an  oflfshoot  of  the  great  emigration 
which  the  Zend  Avcsta  takes  back  almost  as  far  as  the  Bolor. 
We  can,  therefore,  refer  the  latter  to  the  twentieth  or  twenty- 
eighth  century  before  our  era. 

Jewish  history,  starting  with  Abraham,  goes  l)a{k  almost 
to  the  same  period  (:i:il)(>  years) ;  the  deluge  of  Noah,  accord- 
ing to  the  estimation  generally  received,  to  the  year  3.S()S. 
Say  about  thirty  centuries. 

In  China,  the  (!hon-Kiiig  places  the  nigii  of  Hoang-ti  in 
the  year  2(j|)8,  and  that  of  Jao  in  the  year  23.>7  before  our 
era.  'I'his  would  correspond  almost  to  a  ci-ntiiry,  with  tlie, 
dale  of  the  migration  of  Abraham. 

Egypt  had  no  Chou-King,  but  lur  iiKPiuimcnts  arc  the 
most  magnifieent  of  bocik.s.  ('hampollinii  Ims  taught  us  how 
to  read  them,  and  we  can  dt  ( iplu  r  them  j)age  by  page. 
Now  Ijcpsius  and  I'.un.sen  phicc  the  fifth  dynasty  about  the 
fortieth  century,  and  according  to  Mariette  15ey,  the  li.sts  of 


A^e  of  tJic  Human  Species.  131 

Munetho,  upon  the  subject  of  which  the  eminent  E^^yptolo- 
gist  makes  formal  reserves,  go  back  to  the  year  5004  before 
our  era.  We  shoukl,  tlien,  be  separated  from  the  earliest 
liistorical  times  of  Kgypt  by  an  interval  of  about  seventy 
centuries.  If,  instead  of  counting  by  years,  we  count  by 
the  human  life,  which  we  will  estimate  at  about  twenty-five 
years,  we  find  that  we  are  only  separated  from  these  times, 
which  constitute  the  extreme  limit  of  past  history,  by  280 
generations. 

These  numbers  are  undoubtedly  interesting.  They  tend 
to  modify  some  of  the  impressions  which  we  have  received  in 
our  childhood  ;  but  they  tell  us  nothing  of  the  antiquity  of 
the  human  race.  At  most,  in  showing  us  that  at  this  period 
there  existed  people  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  sufficiently 
civilised  to  possess  the  art  of  writing,  and  to  raise  monuments 
worthy  of  our  admiration,  they  refer  the  first  appearance  of 
man  far  beyond  the  limits  which  they  reach  themselves. 

III.  The  Egyptians  themselves  have,  then,  a  past  anterior 
to  all  history.  With  much  greater  reason  is  this  the  case 
with  the  Chinese,  Hindoos,  Greeks,  and  still  more  so  with 
nations  less  well  endowed,  or  accidentally  retarded  in  their 
evolution.  To  phinge  into  this  ob.scurity  with  the  hope  of 
finding  in  it  any  certain  land-marks,  and  to  discover  facts  of 
which  even  legends  say  nutliing,  would  thirty  years  ago  have 
appeared  a  sen.seless  enterprise.  It  is,  nevertheless,  the  work 
accomplished  by  one  of  the  most  recent  of  sciences,  Pre- 
historic  Archonolorjy.  We  should  therefore  regard  the  year 
1847  as  a  memorable  date,  when  three  Danish  savants,  a 
geologist,  a  zoologist,  and  an  archneologist,  were  charged  bv 
the  Society  of  Northern  Antiquaries  to  carry  out  the  studies 
which  have  .served  as  its  foundation.  By  a  study  of  the 
Kitchcnmiddens  and  peat  mosses  of  their  country,  Forcham- 
mer,  Steenstrup  and  Worsaar  have  done  for  the  history  of 
man  what  De  Buch.Elie  de  Beaumont,  and  Cuvier  have  done 
for  the  history  of  the  globe. 

The  Kitclienmiddens  are  essentially  formed  by  the  accu- 
mulation of  shells  strewn  on  the  sea-shore,  which  .sometimes 


13-  The  Human  Species. 

attain  considcraLle  proportions.  With  the  shells  are  found 
the  remains  of  fisli,  and  bones  of  hinls  and  mammalia.  Man 
alone  coulil  iiave  formed  this  accumuhition,  and  his  presence, 
moreover,  is  revealed  by  the  implements,  tools,  and  weapons, 
wliich  he  once  mislaid,  and  which  are  now  found  among  the 
remains  of  liis  meals.  They  consist  of  stone,  almost  always 
rudely  shaped.  In  some  of  these  artificial  hills,  among  the 
traces  of  a  very  rudimentary  industry,  we  meet  with  other 
stone  objects  which  betray  workmansliip  of  the  most  remark- 
able perfection. 

The  Kitchenmiddens,  tlien,  reveal  the  existence  of  a 
population  now  forgotten,  which  at  first  lived  in  an  entirely 
savage  state,  but  afterwards  acquired  a  certain  amount  of 
civili.sation.  From  a  chronological  point  of  view,  however, 
this  infurmation  is  still  very  imperfect.  The  mi.xture  of 
implements,  sometimes  almost  withoiit  form,  and  sometimes 
again  showing  wonderful  workmanship,  permits  of  various 
interpretations,  which  have  in  fact  been  given. 

It  is  different  with  the  objects  found  in  the  peat-mosses, 
and  e.<;pecially  in  those  which  the  Danes  call  nkovmoscs,  that 
xa,,  forest  mosses.  Tiicse  formations  are  found  in  hollows  of 
irregular  form  which  have  been  excavated  in  Quatemary 
clays,  reaching  at  times  a  depth  of  thirty  feet  or  more.  The 
detailed  study  which  Steenstrup  especially  h;us  made  of  tliom 
k'd  him  to  diKfinguish  among  them  the  central  region  or 
jiext-rnoss,  and  the  exterior  reijion  or  forest  region. 

Tlie  first  is  formed  by  the  cavity  itself.  It  is  the  peat- 
moss properly  so  called,  funned  by  the  layers  of  peat  which 
till  the  cavity,  and  have  been  deposited  subsequently  to  its 
formation.  A  meagre  vegetation  grew  upon  the  surface, 
which  di\  ides  this  mass  of  vcgetabh;  di'hris  into  distinct  zones. 
They  are,  proceeding  downwards  : — 1st,  certain  trees,  such 
jm  the  birch,  alder,  and  haztl,  etc.,  mixed  with  heaths;  2Dd, 
Kinall  stunted,  but  sturdy  ]>ine3  {Pinvs  sylvestris),  which 
had  grown  up<ni  peat  in  which  mosses  of  a  high  organisation, 
such  UH  the  liypnum,  were  fotunl  ;  .'hd,  compact,  amorphous 
|u;it,  tlif  el*  iiKiits  of  NNliich  for  a  long  time  it  was  considered 


Present  Geological  Epochs.  133 

impossible  to  discover,  but  in  wliieli  MM.  Steenstrup  and 
Natliorst  discovered  in  187-  undoubted  remains  of  five  species 
of  plants  now  confined  to  the  Arctic  circle,  such  as,  Salix 
het'bacea,  S.  j^ohiris,  S.  rctkidata,  Betula  nana,  Dryas  octo- 
jtdala  ;  4tii,  a  bed  of  clay  evidently  resulting  from  material 
washed  down  by  rain  from  the  sides  of  the  hollow,  when  the 
latter  were  still  bare. 

The  forest  region  occupies  the  sides  themselves.  The 
trees  were  there  protected  from  the  wind,  and  extending 
their  roots  into  a  fertile  clay  they  attained  a  magnificent 
development.  Now  we  at  once  meet  with  a  very  remarkable 
fact,  the  beech  tree  is  not  found  in  the  skormoses.  At  the 
present  day  it  is  the  essential  constituent  of  the  Danish 
forests  ;  it  is  the  national  tree,  and  the  most  ancient  tradi- 
tions give  no  suspicion  that  it  has  ever  been  wanting  in 
Denmark.  In  its  place  the  peat-mos.ses  contain  at  first 
nothing  but  oaks  {Qaercus  robur  sessilifolia)  which  dis- 
appeared from  the  country  in  prehistoric  times,  and  is  only 
found  in  a  few  places  in  Jutland.  Then,  as  we  descend 
deeper  into  the  peat,  the  oaks  give  way  to  pines.  In  their 
turn  the  latter  gain  the  a.scendant,  and  occupy  the  lowest 
[)arts  of  the  peat  exclusively. 

Oaks  and  pines,  when  they  fell  frou\  old  age,  accident,  or 
iiumau  agent-y,  generally  fell  towards  the  interior  of  the  bog. 
Their  interlaced  branches  supported  and  consolidated  tho 
peat,  which  was  then  in  the  best  condition  for  preserving,  as 
they  fell,  any  soliil  substances  which  may  have  been  dropped 
or  thrown  into  the  bog. 

Man  used  to  frerpicnt  the  skovmoses,  and  it  is  well  known 
that  he  cannot  live  in  any  place  without  losing  a  number  of 
objects,  even  those  upon  which  he  sets  most  value.  He  lost 
in  the  bogs  weapons,  tools,  and  instruments  of  all  kinds,  and 
they  all  remain  where  they  fell.  The  skovmoses  have  thu.s 
become  a  kind  of  chronologically  stratified  museum,  where 
each  generation  has  left  its  trace  in  the  contemporanoou.s 
peat.  We  have  only  to  explore  it  layer  by  layer  to  obtain 
many  definite  ideas  about  the  predecessors  of  the  present 


134  The  Human  Specks. 

Danes,  and  to  find  in  this  j)roliistoric  past  relative  dates  or 
epochs.  In  this  iiianner  tlie  Scwndinavian  savants  liave 
arrived  at  the  idea  of  tlie  Af/cs  of  Iron,  Bronze,  and  Stone, 
which  are  now  universally  adojjted.  I  shall  not  here  follow 
the  development  which  those  fundamental  ideas  liave  re- 
ceived, nor  the  manner  in  which  tliey  have  been  applied  to 
the  Lake  dicellings  of  Switzerland  and  elsewhere.  I  shall 
not  insist  further  upon  the  different  degrees  of  civilizatit)n 
betrayed  by  the  use  of  two  metals  and  of  polished  or  ground 
stone.  I  shall  confine  myself  to  the  remark  that  in  Denmark 
the  Iron  age  entirely  corresponds  with  that  of  the  beech  tree, 
while  the  Bronze  age  corresponds  Avith  the  entire  period  of 
the  oak,  and  the  close  of  that  to  the  jtine.  Lastly,  the  pine 
is  the  tree  of  the  Stone  age. 

The  presence  of  objects  formed  by  human  industry  proves 
the  presence  of  man.  Thanks  to  their  irrefutable  testimony, 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  tracing  him  through  the  zones  of  the 
oak  and  the  pine.  The  immense  number  of  objects,  which  have 
been  left  by  him  in  the  peat  period,  points  to  the  existence  of 
a  somewhat  dense  population.  These  objects,  on  the  contrary, 
become  very  rare,  and  at  the  same  time  ruder,  in  the  layer 
of  amorphous  peat.  They  were,  for  some  time,  even  thought 
to  be  wanting  altogether,  till  they  were  finally  discovered  by 
Stecnstrup  associated  with  the  remains  of  the  reindeer. 

Man,  then,  was  living  in  Denmark  when  Arctic  plants, 
such  as  Iktula  nana  and  Saline  jnAaris  grew  at  the  bottc^m 
of  tlie  skovmo.ses  ;  he  was  accompanied  by  the  reindeer, 
which  com[)ktes  the  resemblance  between  the  past  state  of 
that  country  and  the  present  state  of  Lapland.  Now  we 
know  that  such  a  state  of  things  could  only  have  existed  in 
Denmark  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Quaternary  epoch,  when 
the  ice,  retreating  from  the  south  northwards,  would  still  be 
far  removed  from  its  present  limits.  We  can  then  affirm 
that  man  existecl  and  lived  in  Mnrojie  at  tlie  very  dawn  of 
tlie  j)resent  geological  epoch. 

This  fact  is  ngain  j>r()ved  by  the  discovery  of  a  human 
station,  made  by  M.  Fraas,  at  Schus,senried   in   Wurtemberg. 


^o-c  of  the  Iluuian  Species.  135 

Here  man,  ^vhosc  pieseuce  is  attested  by  worked  flints  of 
various  forms,  by  weapons  and  instruments  of  bone,  by 
phalanges  of  reindeer  made  into  whistles,  lived  with  the 
riindeer,  the  glutton,  and  the  polar  fox,  and  gathered  mosses 
which  are  now  confined  to  Northern  Europe,  such  as 
llijpnum  sminentosum,  fiuitans,  and  aduncum.  As  in 
l)L'nmark,  he  seems  to  have  followed  the  glaciers  step  by 
stop,  as  the  melting  of  the  latter  opened  out  new  lands  to 
his  activity. 

IV.  Without  claiming  such  accuracy  for  the  historic  dates, 
or  even  such  an  approximation  as  that  derived  from  the 
Aryan  traditions  on  the  most  ancient  monuments  of  Egypt, 
is  it  possible  to  estimate  the  number  of  years  which  have 
•  lapsed  since  the  times  we  have  just  been  discussing? 

This  question  luis  often  attracted  the  attention  of  geologists 
and  anthropologists,  and  several  attempts  have  been  matle  to 
s(jlve  it.  But  the  results  are  still  far  from  being  satisfactory. 
They  are  none  the  less  interesting,  and  calculated,  to  a 
certain  extent,  to  encourage  fresh  research.  The  method  is 
good  ;  it  has  only  been  hitherto  wanting  in  sufficiently 
precise  dates,  and  we  may  hope  that  they  will  be  sooner  or 
later  forthcoming. 

This  method  is  easily  comprehended.  Fur  example,  let  us 
admit  that  the  peat  has  a  regular  growth  in  the  skovmo.ses, 
and  suppose,  in  addition,  that  a  coin,  recognised  as  belongiijg 
to  the  twelfth  century,  ha.s  been  found  at  a  depth  of  loO 
metres  (4  9  feet) ;  we  shall  conclude  that  the  layer  of  peat 
has  only  rcfpiired  about  GOO  years  for  its  formation.  The 
age  of  a  bronze  hatchet  found  at  greater  depth,  8  metres 
(2(»'24  feet),  will  be  given  by  the  proportion  I'^oO  :  6  :  :  8'"  :  x. 
The  hatchet  would  then  be  ^,'200  years  old,  and  would  date 
from  the  fourteenth  century  before  our  era. 

Many  natural  phenomena  arc  available  for  calculations  of 
this  kind.  Such  are  the  alluvium  of  a  river,  the  silting  up 
of  a  lake,  the  erosion  of  a  hill  or  plateau,  etc.  But  in  order 
tiiat  the  results  of  these  calciilations  may  have  a  real  value, 
the  phenomenon  which  serves  a.s  the  basis,  and  the  calcula- 
7 


136  The  Iluuian  Species. 

tions  resulting  from  the  data  must  satisfy  three  conditions 
wliieh  liave  been  very  clearly  stated  by  M.  Forel. 

1.  The  phenomenon  should  be  perfectly  constant  and 
regular,  which  is  never  the  case.  At  least,  it  ought  to  be 
possible  to  regard  its  action  as  giving  an  annual  mean  or 
constant  centennial  result,  by  means  of  compensations  which 
arc  produced  naturally. 

2.  When  super-imposed  strata  are  used  as  a  means  of 
estimation,  the  age  of  the  strata  socving  as  a  term  of  com- 
parison, ought  to  be  rigorously  determined  ;  the  nature  of 
the  objects  compared  should  leave  no  doubt. 

3.  We  ought  to  be  certain  that  the  objects  found  in  any 
stratum  really  belong  to  it,  that  they  have  not  been  displaced 
by  any  reformation  or  by  their  mere  weight.     (Peat.) 

Should  even  one  oidy  of  these  condition*  be  unfulfilled, 
the  calculation  is  neces.sarily  erroneous.  Now,  hitherto,  wc 
cannot  be  absolutely  certain  that  the  conditions  laid  down  by 
M.  Forel  are  satisfied.  Nevertheless,  I  repeat,  it  is  interest- 
ing to  know  what  results  have  been  obtained  by  these 
attempts  at  prehistoric  chronology. 

It  would  seem,  at  first  sight,  that  the  skovmoscs  must  be 
useful  for  researches  of  this  kind.  It  is  not  so.  Steenstrup, 
an  excellent  judge  of  these  matters,  after  having  cstimatLil 
at  forty  centuries  tlic  time  necessary  for  the  formation  of  the 
peat  accumidated  in  these  bogs,  declares  that  it  might  be 
twice,  or  even  four  times  as  much. 

In  reality,  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  results  obtained  from 
the  growth  of  peat,  is  very  much  greater  tiian  the  Danish 
savant  admits.  In  adding  to  the  data  collected  by  lirandt, 
those  kindly  presented  to  nio  by  my  colleague,  M.  Besal,  I 
find  that  for  a  period  of  4  t'l  y».ars  the  mean  animal  growth 
..f  prat  is  ()(>:{2  metre  (TiifJ  inch).  Jhit  tliis  mean  is  the 
result  of  numbers  who.sc  extremes  are  0005  metre  (256  inch) 
and  ()0()(;."i  metre  (0  20  inrli).  That  is  to  say.  that  the 
means  found  by  dinVrent  observers  for  the  annual  growth  of 
peat,  vary  from  one  to  ten. 

The  calculations  of  ,M.M.  (lillieron  and  'I'royon,  resting  upon 


Present  Geological  Epochs.  137 

the  deposition  of  silt,  which  has  caused  the  retreat  of  the 
Lakes  of  Bienne  and  Nouchatel,  have  but  little  connection 
with  the  present  subject.  Both  have  sought  to  determine 
the  age  of  the  Lake  dwellings,  which  belong,  probably,  to  a 
nuich  later  period  than  the  one  which  we  arc  now  endeavour- 
ing to  determine.  We  may,  however,  notice  the  numbers, 
(5,000  years  and  3,300  years,  found  by  these  observers. 

The  chronological  results  derived  from  the  littoral  accumu- 
lition  of  silt,  of  which  I  have  just  spoken,  exhibit  chances 
for  error  which  Vogt  has  rightly  pointed  out.  For  some 
time  the  results  have  been  thought  more  worthy  of  confi- 
dence which  were  based  upon  the  researches  made  by  M. 
Mt)rlot  upon  the  conical  accumulation  of  silt  deposited  by 
the  Tiniere.  This  cone,  which  was  cut  through  by  the  rail- 
way for  a  di.stance  of  133'"'  (436  feet),  and  to  a  depth 
of  7"7"'*  (2.')  feet),  exhibited  in  the  midst  of  the  mass 
of  gravel  three  undisturbed  soils,  the  highest  of  which  con- 
tained Roman  instruments  and  coins ;  the  second,  pottery 
of  the  Bronze  age  ;  and  tliC  third,  split  bone.s,  charcoal,  and 
ditVcrent  objects  referable  to  the  close  of  the  Stone  age. 
Fixing  the  commencement  of  the  Roman  period  in  Switzer- 
land at  the  first  century  of  our  era,  and  the  end  of  it  at  the 
year  oGS,  and  making  some  corrections  which  cannot  be  de- 
tailed here,  M.  Morlot  has  con.sidered  himself  able  to  propose 
the  following  numbers  as  approximate  dates  : — 

Age  of  layer  of  Roman  jH-riixl          .         .         .  10  to    1.")  coiiturios. 

Ape  of  liiviT  of  nroii/.c;  jMTi(«l                       .     .  29  to    42  eeiituries. 

Ape  of  layer  of  Sioiio  piriiKl    ,         .         .         .  47  to    70  centuries. 

Age  of  whole  cone 7  t  to  100  centuries. 

These  ntimbei-s  are  not  high.  The  number  given  by  M. 
.Morlot  as  the  age  of  the  Stone  period  in  Switzerland,  leads 
us  back  to  an  antiquity  which  does  not  exceed  that  given 
by  the  Eg}-ptian  monumonts  ;  and  it  is  impossible  to  avoid 
being  struck  with  the  diflcrenccs  of  civilization  exhibited  by 
the  two  countries.  Nevertheless,  this  fact  cannot  constitute 
a  reason  for  doubting  the  results  of  the  Swi.ss  .savant.  It  is 
well  known  that  man  during  the  same  time  has  not  every- 


138  The  Hu7)mn  Species. 

where  equally  advanced  in  civilization,  and  that  the  Eskimas 
are  still  in  tlie  Neolithic  period. 

But  other  criticisms  have  been  brought  forward  against  M. 
Morlot,  the  result  of  which  is  that  the  numbers  furnished  by 
the  cone  of  the  Tiniere  cannot  be  accepted  a^*  giving  a  real 
approximation  to  the  date  which  we  are  seeking  for. 

V.  M.  Forel,  who  has  taken  an  active  part  in  this  discus- 
sion, has  tried  to  solve  the  problem  in  an  indirect  way.  In- 
.stead  of  seeking  directly  for  the  age  of  a  prehistoric  fact,  he 
lias  proposed  to  have  recourse  to  the  rule  of  false  position, 
which  allows  the  determination  either  of  a  maximum  which 
tlio  numbers  cannot  possibly  exceed,  or  a  mininuim  below 
which  they  cannot  fall.  He  has  applied  this  plan,  which  is 
JUS  correct  as  it  is  ingenious,  to  the  Lake  of  Geneva, 

It  is  well  known  that  the  waters  of  the  Rhone,  especially 
during  the  floods  caused  by  the  melting  of  the  snow,  enter 
the  lake  in  a  very  turbid  condition,  and  flow  on  remarkably 
clear.  The  mud  thus  deposited  evidently  tends  to  fdl  up  the 
lake,  and  has  already  silted  up  a  part  of  the  great  depression 
which  was  fdled  by  the  ice  of  the  Quaternary  epoch.  M. 
Forel  has  first  determined  the  annual  volume  of  the  deposit. 
He  has  then  calculated  the  volume  of  the  present  lake,  basing 
his  calculations  on  the  soundings  made  by  La  Bechc.  Ho 
luus  thus  been  enabled  to  calculate  the  time  necessary  for  the 
se<liment  of  the  llhone  to  fill  \\\}  the  entire  lake.  Then,  ad- 
mitting that  the  part  of  the  original  lake  already  filled  up 
ha<l  a  mean  depth  equal  to  that  of  the  present  lake,  ho  ha.s 
eomp.Tred  the  surface  of  the  alluvial  deposits  already  formed 
with  the  surface  of  the  lake  itself.  The  proportion  is  almost 
one  to  three.  These  dopo.sjts  liavc  then  been  formed  in  a 
third  of  the  time  nccesstuy  to  fill  up  the  ])resent  lake. 
Now  their  formation  commenced  inuneiliately  after  the  re- 
treat of  the  glaciers.  The  date  thus  obtained  is,  then, 
that  of  the  modem  geological  epoch. 

Such  is  the  method  by  which  AI.  Forel  arrives  at  the 
number  of  1  ()(),()()()  y<ars.  'J'hi.s  is  a  maximum  which  is 
probably   much  exaggerated.     M.  Fore  I    shows  this  himself 


Aj^c  of  tJic  Human  Species.  139 

very  clearly.  He  has  always  taken  the  lowest  numbers 
for  the  estimation  of  the  increase  of  alluvium  ;  he  has  con- 
sidered on  the  whole  year  ninety  days  only  as  contributing  to 
this  increase  ;  he  has  only  included  the  Rhone  in  this  estima- 
tion, and  taken  no  account  of  other  rivers,  streams,  etc.  ;  he 
has  not  taken  into  consideration  inundations,  extraordinary 
I'alls  of  ruin,  landslips,  etc. ;  he  has  Jissumcd  the  floods  of  the 
Rhone  have  always  resembled  the  present  floods,  while  they 
must  originally  have  been  much  more  considerable,  and  have 
carried  away  much  more  material  from  mountain  slopes  but 
recently  relieved  from  their  covering  of  ice;  he  has  said 
nothing  of  the  gravel  and  sand  which  must  necessarily  be 
c.irried  along  the  bed  of  a  rapid  stream  like  the  Rhone,  etc. 

M.  Forel's  result  must  therefore  undergo  serious  reduc- 
tion before  it  approximates  to  the  truth.  Without  attempt- 
ing a  precise  statement,  we  can  (at  least)  admit  with  almost 
al)solute  certainty  that  the  present  geological  epoch  com- 
menced less  than  100,000  years  ago. 

On  the  other  liand,  M.  Arcelin  has  pought  for  a  solution  of 
the  .same  problem  in  the  deposits  of  the  Saonc.  The  present 
river  flows  in  a  channel  hollowed  out  in  the  alluvium  of  the 
Saone  of  Quaternary  times,  the  banks  of  which  have  been 
raised  by  the  sediment  deposited  during  floods.  The  two 
deposits  are  very  easily  distinguished.  The  homogeneity  of 
the  modern  alluvium  indicates,  moreover,  a  remarkably 
regvdar  phenomenon.  The  banks  of  the  Saone  at  different 
points  form  more  or  less  abrupt  hills  which  constitute  so 
many  natural  geological  sections.  The  erosions  of  the  river 
have  laid  bare  objects  easily  recognised  as  belonging  to 
the  Roman  period,  the  Ihonze  age,  and  the  Neolithic  ago. 
These  objects  are  found  at  a  constant  height,  showing  that 
they  arc  in  situ.  The  hills  of  the  Saone,  then,  constitute 
one  of  those  means  of  estimating  ])rehi>turic  chronology, 
which  are  .so  valuable  to  us.  MM.  Arcelin  and  Do  Ferry 
have  attempted  fii^st  to  determine  the  age  of  the  different 
layeis.  The  numbers  so  obtained  show  a  certain  amount 
of  discordance,   undoubtedly   due    to   the    fact    that    M.   de 


140  The  Human  Species. 

Ferry  lias  La'^cd  liis  calculations  upon  a  single  section, 
wliilc  those  of  M.  Arcolin  represent  the  mean  taken  from 
33  points.  The  latter  has,  however,  afterwards  had  re- 
course to  the  method  of  M.  Forel,  and  to  the  rule  of  false 
position.  But  instead  of  seeking  a  maximum,  he  has  en- 
deavoured to  determine  a  minimum.  This  calculation 
gives  the  following  results  : — 

Aj^c  of  Roman  layer  .  1.500  years  I  Ajjc  of  Xenlithic  layer  .  ^.000  years 
Age  i)f  IJroiizc  layer   .  .     2.UJ0  years  |  A^je  of  Quaternary  elay     G,7jO  ytiiirs 

This  represents  a  very  moderate  anticiuity,  and  corresponds 
almost  entirely  with  the  dates  of  Manetho.  But  the  minimum 
of  M.  Arcelin  appears  to  me  to  Le  too  low,  and  the  error 
greater  than  in  the  case  of  the  maximum  of  ^I.  Forel.  I 
.shall  only  point  out  the  most  important  of  the  causes  which 
have  led  to  this  result.  The  calculations  of  the  author  are 
based  upon  the  hypothesis  of  the  cijuality  of  the  Hoods,  and 
of  the  alluvial  deposit  in  the  period  between  the  present  and 
the  Roman  period,  and  in  times  previous  to  that.  He  thus 
confounds  the  epochs  when  the  basin  of  the  Saono  was  left  to 
Nature  alone,  with  other  epochs  when  the  same  basin  was 
stri])pod  of  its  forests,  cleared  and  cultivated  as  it  is  at  pre- 
sent. Now  everyone  knows  how  niueii  more  powerful  the 
action  of  atmospheric  agents,  of  rain  in  particular,  are  upon 
cuUivaUd  land  than  u|»on  uncidtivuted.  The  ujiper  layers, 
which  served  as  the  basis  for  the  calculations  of  M.  Arcelin, 
liave  necessarily  dimiiiished  to  a  considerable  cxtrnt  the 
final  result,  since  they  miist  have  been  fornud  much  more 
ra[)idly  than  a  great  part  of  the  lower  layers. 

I  KJiall  say,  then,  of  (li»j  mininmm  ol  M.  Aici  lin  what  I 
hav(!  .said  of  the  maximum  of  M.  Forel.  It  leaves  us  the 
eertainty  that  tlu;  present  gecjlogical  jieriod  goes  back  much 
further  than  7—8000  years. 

VI,  AVhat  corrections  oui^ht  the  extreme  numbers  which 
I  have  just  (juoted  to  undergo  in  order  to  a|)i»roximate  to 
the  truth  ?  It  is  still  impossible  to  say.  But  ihe  j)ath 
which   shfjuld   b(!    follow(;d    in   order   to   dimini.sh    IIm;   space 


Present  Geological  Epochs.  141 

wliich  separates  them  is  hencefoivth  clear.  The  alkiviuin  of 
the  Saoue  has  always  appeared  to  mo  to  present  couditious 
of  uncertainty  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  overcome,  and 
the  best  means  of  determining  the  age  of  the  present  period 
by  prehistoric  chronology,  appears  to  me  to  be  the  Lake  of 
Geneva. 

In  order  to  correct  the  first  results  obtained  by  M.  Forel, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  take  into  account  all  tlie  circum- 
stances pointoil  out  above,  and  several  others  also.  It  would 
be  especially  necessary,  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  in 
dry  and  wet  weather,  to  gauge  the  smallest  rivulets  and 
ravines  all  round  the  lake,  to  measure  the  amount  of  mud 
their  waters  contain,  and  the  amount  of  gravel  and  sand  they 
carry  down  with  it.  This  ta.sk  is  be^'ond  the  power  of  a 
single  man;  it  would' require  the  formation  of  an  Association 
for  this  end.  The  problem  would  be  worth  the  trouble,  and 
the  Swiss  savants,  so  justly  proud  of  their  beautiful  lake, 
might  easily  make  arrangements  to  obtain  its  .solution. 

JSuch  as  they  arc,  the  works  of  MM.  Arcelin  and  Ford 
load  to  some  important  conclusions.  The  total  age  of  our 
globe,  used  till  lately  to  be  rcstrictcil  to  a  little  more  than 
(>,000  years ;  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Saone  show  that  the 
l»resent  geological  epoch  alone  surpasses  this  by  several  cen- 
turies. On  tlie  other  hand,  imdcr  the  influence  of  Darwinian 
prejudices,  men  have  bcgim  to  handle  time  with  a  strange 
laxity,  and  it  has  been  affirmed  that  millions  of  years 
separate  us  from  glacial  times.  The  deposits  of  silt  in  the 
Lake  of  Geneva  show  that  these  times  terminated  less  than 
lOO.OOO  years  ago.  As  M.  Furel  well  say.s,  "  'J'his  does  nof 
yet  constitute  historic  chronology  ;  it  i.s,  nevertheles.s,  a  little 
more  than  simple  geological  chronology  ; "  and  we  see  once 
more  experience  and  observation  doing  justice  to  theoretical 
coufiptii  lus. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 
AGE  OF  Tin:  HUMAN  sri:cii:s. — past  geological  epochs. 

I.  The  skovinoscs  and  the  remains  at  Scliusscnrieil  have 
shown  that  man  existed  in  Europe  at  the  close  of  the  Glacial 
Epocli.  But  did  he  live  through  this  epoch  ?  Did  he 
precede  it  ?  Has  he,  therefore,  been  contemporary  with 
vegetable  and  animal  species,  which  have  long  been  con- 
sidered a-s  fossils?  We  know  that  we  can  with  certainty 
reply  in  the  affirmative  to  these  questions.  We  know 
also  that  the  proof  of  this  great  ftxct,  one  of  the  grandest 
scientific  conquests  of  modern  times,  dates,  so  to  speak,  from 
yesterday. 

This  demonstration  rests  on  proofs  which  are  now  so  well 
known  that  the  enumeration  of  them  will  be  sufficient.  It 
is  evident  that  human  bones,  buried  beneath  an  undisturbcil 
layer  of  soil,  prove  the  existence  of  man  at  the  time  when 
the  layer  was  formed.  It  is  no  less  clear  that  flints  worked 
bv  human  hands  and  made  into  hatchets,  knives,  etc.,  bones 
of  animals  made  into  harpoons  ami  arrow-heads,  are  so  many 
irrefutable  testimonies  of  the  existence  of  the  workcr.s. 
Lastly,  when  human  bonos  are  found  assotiatctl  with  bones 
of  animals  in  the  .same  undisturbed  layers,  it  is  :tg;iin  cvidcMit 
that  man  and  these  animal  species  liavc  been  (•••iifoin- 
poraneous. 

Many  facts  included  in  these  three  categoriis  were  pn.vcd 
in  the  earlier  years,  and  during  the  course  of  the  l.xst  century. 
Since  1700,  exr.ivat ions  mad«-  by  the  c»rder  of  Diiku  Kbcih.ird 
Iajxuh  do  WurtomlM-rg.  at  ( 'anstadt,  n«;ar  Stuttg.ird,  biou-ht, 
to  light  a  great  n»iml)er  of  bones  of  animals,  among  which  was 
fuun<l  a  human  cranium.     The  nature  of  this  precious  relic 


A^e  of  the  //ion tin  Species.  143 

w.:is,  however,  only  reco;^iii.sed  by  Jaeger  in  1835.  About 
the  same  time  an  EnglLslnnan,  Kemp,  found  in  London  itself, 
side  by  side  with  the  teeth  of  elephants,  a  stone  hatchet 
similar  to  those  of  S;iint  Acheul.  Some  time  after  P]sper  in 
Germany,  and  John  Frere  in  England,  discovered  more  or 
less  analogous  facts.  But  none  of  them  were  able  to 
recognise  their  significance,  for  geology  Avas  quite  in  its 
infancy,  and  paUcontology  not  yet  in  existence. 

II.  It  was  not  till  1823  that  Amy  Boud  gave  Cuvicr  some 
human  bones  which  he  had  found  in  the  loess  of  the  Rhine, 
near  Lahr,  in  the  Duchy  of  Baden.  Bouc  regarded  these 
lM)nes  as  fossils.  Cuvier  refused  to  admit  this  conclusion. 
He  has  often  been  reproached  with  this,  but  the  reproach  is 
unjust.  Cuvier  had  too  often  seen  pretended  fossil  men 
change  either  into  mastodons  or  salamanders,  or  even  into 
simple  contorted  blocks  of  sandstone,  not  to  be  on  his  guard, 
and,  in  presence  of  a  fact  hitherto  unique,  he  th(»ught  it 
wiser  to  admit  a  disturbance  which  would  have  carried  into 
the  loess  bones  of  much  later  date  than  that  of  the  formation 
of  this  layer. 

But  Cuvier,  whatever  may  have  been  said  of  him,  never 
denied  the  possibility  of  the  di.scovery  of  fossil  men.  lie 
hius,  on  the  contrary,  formally  admitted  the  existence  of  our 
species  as  anterior  to  the  latest  revolutions  of  the  globe. 
"  Man,"  he  says,  "  may  have  inhabited  some  country  of 
small  extent  from  which  he  repeopled  the  earth  after  these 
terrible  event.s."  We  see  that  the  praises  and  reproaches 
whicli  have  been  addressed  to  our  great  naturalist  on  ac- 
count of  an  opinion  which  he  never  held,  are  c(|ually  unde- 
8erve«l. 

The  reserve,  perhaps  exaggerated,  which  Cuvier  imposeil 
u|>>n  himself,  and  the  confidence  which  was  placed  in  him, 
weighctl  heavily  tipon  sci4?nce  by  impeding  the  comprehcn- 
.'^iun  of  the  value  of  observations  made  by  Tournal  (1828- 
182!))  in  L'Aude,  by  Christol  (182!))  in  Lo  Gard  ;  by 
Schmerling  (1833)  in  Belgium;  by  Joly  (1835)  in  Lozere; 
by  Marcel  de  Serres  (183!)),  in  L'Aude,  and  by  Lund  (1844)  in 


144  '^^^^  Iliniian  Species. 

Brazil.  In  IS  to  almost  all  the  savants,  properly  so  called, 
sliared  tlic  opinion  so  well  stated  by  Desnoyers.  AVitliout 
re^jarding  the  existence  of  fossil  man  as  impossible,  they  did 
not  think  that  the  discovery  had  as  yet  been  made. 

It  is  to  the  persevering  efforts  of  a  distinguished  archieo- 
logist,  Boucher  de  Perthes,  that  we  owe  the  proof  of  a  fact 
so  long  denied,  and  now  universally  admitted.  Under  the 
influence  of  curtain  philosophical  ideas,  little  calculated  to 
j)rocure  him  f(jllowers,  he  had  admitted  d  j)r'iori  the  ex- 
istence of  human  beings  anterior  to  the  present  man,  from 
whom  they  must  have  differed  considerably.  He  hoped  to 
find  either  their  remains  themselves,  or  the  jnoducts  of  their 
industry,  in  the  upper  alluvial  deposits.  Watching  either 
himself  or  thiough  his  agents  the  excavation  of  the  gravel 
pits  near  Abbeville,  he  collected  there  a  number  of  flints, 
more  or  less  rudely  worked,  but  bearing  the  unmistakable 
impress  of  the  hand  of  man.  Some  of  his  publications  (1847) 
brought  him  visitors,  who  in  their  turn  carried  on  the  search. 
Soon  after,  M.  Regcjllot  (1855)  and  M.  Gaudry  (185G)  obtained 
from  the  gravel  of  Saint  Aclieul  hatchets  similar  to  those  of 
Alibeville,  and  declared  themselves  convinced.  The  English 
savants,  Falconer,  Prcstwich,  and  Lyell,  after  liaving  visited 
the  collection  of  Boucher  do  Perthes,  did  the  same,  and  liad 
many  imitators. 

III.  In  spite  of  the  discoveries  which  were  midtijilied  in 
cavenis  and  gravel-pits,  even  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris, 
the  same  objections  were  brought  against  the  believers  in 
lussil  man  which  Cuvier  had  opposed  to  Amy  Bond  The 
juxtapositi(;n  ui  the  renuiins  of  extinct  animals  and  human 
boncH,  or  articles  of  human  workmanship,  were  attributed  to 
a  reforiiidtum  effected  by  water.  The  high  aufliorify  of  M, 
de  Bramont  lent  new  force  to  this  argument.  Jle  coujpand 
the  alluvium  of  the  neighbourhood  of  Alibcvillc  to  his 
fi.rrainn  den  pcntcn,  form««l,  he  said,  by  storms  of  an  ex- 
ceptional violence,  which  oidy  happened  once  in  a  thousand 
years,  and  which  heap  up  together  materials  derived  from 
different  beds.     As  for  the  oljects  discovered  in  caverns  they 


Past  Geological  Epochs.  145 

inspired  still  less  confidence  than  the  others,  on  account  of 
tlio  c;i.^e  with  which  the  bed  might  be  undermined  by  e(ldics, 
which  would  tend  to  deposit  in  the  heart  of  a  subjacent  layer 
objects  derived  from  the  upper  layers,  without  destroying 
cither  the  one  or  the  other. 

Many  men  of  high  intellect  still  hesitated,  until  M.  Lartet 
published  his  remarkable  work  upon  the  grotto  of  Aurignac 
(ISOl).  Here  doubt  was  impossible.  This  grotto,  or  rather 
rock-shelter,  was  closed  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  by  a  slab 
of  stone  brought  from  a  distance ;  M.  Lartet  discovered, 
either  in  the  interior  or  at  the  entrance,  the  bones  of  eight  or 
nine  species  of  animals  which  are  essentially  characteristic  of 
quaternary  deposits.  In  his  memoir  he  gives  details  of  all 
the  remains.  Some  of  these  animals  had  evidently  been 
eaten  upon  the  spot,  their  bones,  partly  carbonized,  still  bore 
the  trace  of  fire,  the  charcoal  and  ashes  of  which  were  dis- 
covered ;  those  of  a  young  tichorhine  rhinoceros  showed  marks 
made  by  flint  implements,  and  their  .spongy  extremities  had 
been  gnawed  by  carnivora ;  the  species  of  the  latter  was 
shown  by  his  excrement,  which  wa.s  recognized  as  that  of  the 
hyena  spelcea. 

The  grotto  or  rock-shelter  of  Aurignac  is  excavated  in  a 
small  mountainous  group,  a  spur  of  the  plateau  of  Lanemezan, 
which  the  Pyrcnean  drift  has  never  reached.  It  is,  therefore, 
free  from  tbc  objections  drawn  from  the  intervention  of 
aqueous  currents.  Thus  the  facts  made  known  by  M.  Lartet 
were  generally  accepted  at  once  in  their  fullest  signification. 
These  facts  show  that  man  lived  in  the  midst  of  a  quater- 
nary fauna,  which  he  usetl  as  food,  including  the  rhinoceros, 
and  was  fallowed  by  the  hyena  of  this  epoch,  who  finished 
tl»e  remains  of  his  meals.  The  coexistence  of  man  wiili 
these  fossil  species  was  proved. 

A  few  ill-judged  attacks  were  still  made  by  .savants,  who 
did  not  accept  the  testimony  of  these  fact.s,  among  others 
that  of  the  discovery  of  a  human  jaw  made  by  Boucher  do 
Perthes.  But  tlic  discoveries  became  .so  numerous  that  the 
last   .Tiiiniig  them  was  soon  rediui  <l   i>>  silence,  ainl   h-ul  to 


146  The  Ilimian  Species. 

submit  to  the  mentioii  of  foss!il  man  without  raising  the 
slightest  protest. 

IV.  It  would  be  too  tedious  ami,  indeed,  useless  to 
enumerate  here  all  these  discoveries.  I  will  only  mention 
some  of  the  most  striking  ones  associated  with  the  names  of 
Lartet  and  Christy,  his  enthusiastic  colleague.  At  Lcs 
Eyzies,  these  indefatigable  investigators  discovered  a  stalag- 
mitic  layer  f(jrmed  of  a  veritable  breccia,  which  contained 
worked  flints,  ashes,  charcoal,  and  bones  of  different  (jua- 
ternary  animals.  Large  slabs  of  this  breccia  now  figure  in 
many  collections.  In  this  same  grotto  they  found  a  vertebra 
of  a  young  reindeer  pierced  by  a  flint  which  had  broken  in 
the  bone,  thus  causing  the  death  of  the  animal.  Finally,  in 
1SG4,  JM.  Lartet  liad  the  pleasure  of  being  present  at  the 
discovery  of  a  plate  of  mammoth  ivory,  upon  which  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  animal  itself  had  been  carved  with  a  sharp 
flint  by  an  artist  of  La  Madeleine.  In  this  drawing  are  found 
the  characteristic  traits  of  the  mammoth,  as  they  are  known 
to  us  from  the  remains  of  the  animal  which  are  at  times 
f<»iuid  preserved,  wi(h  Us  tliick  fur  inid  Ioikj  Ii'ur,  in  the  ice 
of  Siberia. 

For  man  to  be  able  to  draw  the  jiortrait  of  iiiiy  animal 
species,  he  must  have  been  conttinpoianetjus  with  it.  Mow 
proofs  of  this  nature  have  rajiidly  become  more  numerous 
and  striking.  In  IWiIi'l^c  M.  (Jarrigoti  found  a  representation 
of  the  cave  bear  traced  on  a  pebble.  M.de  Viliraye  oxtracted 
from  the  grotto  of  Laugerie  Basse  a  sketch  of  a  fight  betwecMi 
reindeer  remarkably  well  diawu  upon  a  piece  of  schist.  The 
same  animal  has  l>een  discoven-d  represented  in  S(ulj)turc  in 
th(!  H.-iiiie  rcM-k-shelter,  an<l  again  in  tin;  rock-shrlter  of 
Montastruc,  where  M.  Peccadeau  do  I'l-slc  found  his  wcmder- 
ful  dagger-handles. 

1  need  not  speak  here  of  the  weapons,  tools,  and  instru- 
nientH  of  every  kin<l,  from  the  simple  knife  to  barbed  arrow- 
heads, nn<l  harpoons,  to  laurel-leaf  shaped  lancc-hea<ls,  and 
daggers  loothe<l  an«l  grooved,  which  equal  the  (inest  specimens 
found  in  Denmark.     I  will  only  remark  that  all  these  objects 


/Ig€  of  tJtc  Hunian  Species.  i.}7 

prove  the  existence  of  man,  and  that  we  now  count  by  the 
thousand  articles  made  by  him  during  the  geological  period 
prt'cetling  our  own. 

Without  being  nearly  so  abundant,  the  remains  of  man 
liimself  have  been  discovered  in  every  part  of  the  quaternary 
formation.  Although  several  European  states  have  con- 
tributed towards  this  mass  of  discoveries,  by  far  the  greater 
nimiber  occurred  in  France  and  Belgium. 

I  cannot  here  enter  into  details,  some  of  which,  will  be 
more  advantageously  discussed  in  another  part  of  the  book. 
1  will  only  mention  the  cave  of  Cro-Magnon,  which  was 
discovered  by  the  railway  engineers  in  1860,  not  far  from 
the  station  of  Les  Eyzies,  and  which  has  given  us  the  type  of 
one  of  the  best  characterized  fossil  races.  Nor  can  1  pass 
over  in  silence  the  successful  and  laborious  researches  made 
by  M.  Martin  from  18G7  to  1.S73  in  the  quarries  near  Paris, 
the  results  of  which  enabled  M.  Hamy  to  fix  the  succession 
of  types  in  our  immediate  neigidwurhood.  Lastly,  I  would 
allude  to  the  investigations  of  M.  Dupont  in  the  valley  of 
the  Lesse.  Commenced  in  ISGi,  and  continued  during  seven 
years  with  an  unequalled  activity,  they  have  presented  to 
the  Museum  at  Brussels  about  80,000  worked  Hints,  40,000 
bones  of  animals,  now  all  named,  the  crania  of  Furfooz,  and 
twenty-one  jaws,  including  the  now  celebrated  ^'air  of  Xauh'tte. 

It  is  not  only  in  Europe  that  the  existence  of  fossil  man 
li;is  been  proved.  Even  in  1844!  Lund  had  announced  that 
he  had  found  in  certain  caverns  in  Brazil  Imman  bones 
;issf)ciated  with  remains  of  extinct  animals.  He  afterwards 
withdrew  his  statement,  doubtless  owing  to  the  distrust  with 
which  every  announcement  of  this  kind  was  received.  But 
his  ob.servations,  which,  unfortunately,  were  never  ])u1)!ished 
in  detail,  were  probably  correct.  In  18(57  M.  W.  Blake 
announced  to  the  Congress  of  Paris  that  in  the  auriferous 
di'posits  of  California,  and  especially  near  the  village  of 
8onora,  weapons,  instruments,  and  even  stone  ornaments 
were  frequently  found  associated  with  the  bones  of  the 
mammoth  and  the  mastodon.     Dr.  Snell,  who  lives  in  this 


148  The  Hitman  Species. 

Icrality,  possesses  a  large  and  rich  collcctiun  of  tlieni.  Dr. 
Wilson  published  some  facts  of  the  same  nature  in  18t)5. 

V.  It  became  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  our  being  lost 
amidst  these  riches  of  every  description,  to  distribute  them 
in  a  methodical  manner,  and  arrange  them  in  order  of  time. 
The  universal  preponderance  of  weapons,  tools,  sculpture, 
drawings,  etc.,  has  led  archaeologists  to  propose  ditl'erent 
cliussifications  essentially  founded  upon  the  ditierence  of  the 
types  presented  by  these  articles,  and  upon  the  material  from 
which  they  were  made.  Tlie  classification  which  M.  de  Mor- 
lillet  has  applied  to  the  Museum  of  St.  Germain  is  of  this 
kind.  But  such  classification.s,  though  very  convenient  for 
the  arrangement  of  a  public  collection,  have  the  inconve- 
nience of  being  rather  artificial.  The  naturalist  and  tiie 
anthropologist  ought  to  give  the  preference  to  palopontolo- 
gical  or  geological  data. 

Lartet  prefeired  the  former,  lie  connected  the  division 
of  quaternary  times  with  the  predominance  and  extinction  of 
the  great  mammalia.  The  cave-bear,  which  was  the  first  to 
<lit<appcar,  he  employed  to  mark  the  most  ancient  period; 
the  mammoth  and  the  tichorhinc  rhinoceros,  which  survived 
it,  characterised  the  second  ;  the  reindeer  and  the  aurochs 
have  served  to  mark  .the  third  and  fourth. 

This  chussification  has  the  inconvenience  of  being  ])urely 
local,  since  the  disappearance  of  (piaternary  species  ilid  not 
take  place  everywhere  at  the  same  time,  and  was  not  general. 
Ill  reality  the  age  of  the  reindeer  still  continues  in  Lapland, 
md  that  of  the  aurochs  is  prolonged,  a  little  artificially  it 
is  true,  in  the  forests  of  Lithuaniiu  But  Lartet's  method 
connects  h  11  man  groups  with  aniinal  types;  it  characterises 
the  Cf)ochs  by  an  event  palaontologieally  important;  it 
jircHervfH  the  relation  between  the  Kuccissi(tn  of  pt  riods  an<l 
biological  cvent«  ;  it  oflirH,  tiiereforc,  serious  advantages  if 
taken  for  what  it  is.  'J'his  was  very  clearly  understood  by 
the  (  ininent  author  of  the  theor)' ;  he  luus  only  ajiplied  it  to 
I''rancc. 

Since   M.   Lartet   n)ade   his  sj)len(lid    investigations,  fresh 


Past  Geological  Epochs.  149 

fa<'ts  have  come  to  liglit,  and,  iis  it  often  Ihajipcns,  distinctions, 
which  at  firet  were  apparently  most  pronounced,  have  now 
been  partly  effaced.  Therefore  M.  Dupont  has  proposed  to 
reduce  to  two  the  four  ages  of  Lartet,  whicli  is  perhaps 
excessive  even  for  Belgium.  M.  Hamy,  again,  has  admitted 
three  ages  as  corresponding  to  the  mean  and  new  river  levels 
of  M.  Belgrand.  This  division  of  quaternary  times  has  the 
advantage  of  being  connected  with  geological  phenomena  ; 
it  at  least  partly  loses  the  too  exclusively  local  character,  and 
it  ought  fur  this  reason  to  be  preferred. 

Let  us,  nevertheless,  consider  the  subject  fur  a  moment  from 
Lartet-'s  point  of  view,  which  permits  of  an  interesting  com- 
parison. We  have  seen  in  Denmark  the  succession  of  three 
vegetable  species  ;  the  beech,  the  oak,  and  the  pine  bring  us 
to  the  commencement  of  the  present  modern  epoch.  In 
P' ranee  the  successive  disappearance  of  four  animal  species, 
the  cave-bear,  mammoth,  reindeer,  and  auroclis,  which  at 
first  were  contemporaneous  on  our  soil,  characterises  so  many 
epochs  which  embrace  the  whole  quaternary  period.  Man 
hius  been  contemporaneous  with  them  all  ;  he  made  use  of 
their  flesh  for  food,  and  has  left  representations  of  them  in 
sculpture  and  drawings. 

VI.  Can  we  go  further  and  find  traces  of  man  even  in 
tertiary  times?  Falconer,  the  celebrated  English  paUeon- 
tologist,  prematurely  lost  to  science,  did  not  hesitate  to 
reply  in  the  affirmative.  But  he  only  exjiected  to  find 
tertiary  man  in  India,  and  M.  Desnoyers  has  di.scovered  him 
ill  France. 

It  was  in  1.S63,  in  the  gravel-pit  of  Saint-Prest,  near 
L'iiartres,  that  M.  Desnoyers  himself  found  a  til)ia  of  rhino- 
ceros bearing  marks  of  incisitin  antl  grooves  similar  to  those 
which  had  been  .so  often  noticed  in  the  bones  of  bears  and 
reindeer  eaten  by  quaternary  man.  A  careful  comparison 
and  numerous  facts  of  the  same  nature,  shown  in  ditVorent 
collections,  authorised  him  to  announce  that  man  might  be 
traced  beyond  the  glacial  epoch,  and  had  lived  in  pliocene 
times. 


150  The  IIiDNiin  Sjyccics. 

But  M.  Desnoyers  only  brought  forward  proofs  ot  a  single 
kin<l,  and  such  as  are  not  appreciated  at  their  full  value  until 
we  are  used  to  them.  Thus  his  work  was  at  first  received 
with  a  certain  amount  of  distrust,  lie  was  asked  to  produce, 
if  not  pliocene  man  himself,  at  least  some  objects  of  his 
industry,  and,  in  particular,  the  weapons  which  would  enable 
him  to  attack,  and  the  knives  with  which  he  could  cut  up 
the  elephant  and  rhinoceros,  or  the  great  deer,  whose  bones 
all  bear  the  marks  of  more  or  less  deep  incision  which  he 
attributes  to  man.  M.  I'Abbd  Bourgeois  soon  replied  to 
these  demands,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  worked  flints 
which  he  placed  before  competent  judges,  all  doubt  dis- 
appeared. 

Unfortunately,  the  gravel  of  Saint-Prest  is  considered  by  a 
sufficient  number  of  geologists  to  belong  rather  to  (quaternary 
deposits,  which  are  more  recent  than  undoubted  tertiary 
formations.  It  ought  probably  to  bo  placed  in  the  period  of 
transition  which  separates  two  distinct  epochs.  Perhaps  it 
is  contemporaneous  with  the  deposit  of  the  Victoria  cave  in 
Yorkshire,  from  which  Tiddeinan  extracted  a  human  fibida, 
and  which  this  naturalist  regarded  as  having  been  formed  a 
little  before  the  great  ^dacial  cold.  In  short,  the  di.scoverics 
of  MM.  Desnoyers  and  Tiddiinan  take  back  the  exi.stence  of 
man  to  the  confines  of  the  tertiary  period. 

The  discoveries  in  Italy  take  us  still  further.  On  difb-nMit 
occasions,  and  since  18U.*},  some  Italian  savants  thought  that 
they  had  discovered  in  imdoubted  pliocene  deposits  traces  of 
human  industry,  and  even  human  Ixtnes.  These  results 
were,  however,  for  ditferent  reasons  successively  doubted  and 
rejected  by  the  most  competent  judges. 

But  M.  rii|»<Hini  has  just  discovered,  in  lS7t),  clearer  proofs 
of  man's  exist<ncr  in  ])lioc('ne  times  in  the  clay  deposits  of 
Monte  Apcrto,  near  Sienne,  and  in  two  other  places.  The 
eminent  pntf-ssor  of  Bologna  ha.s  found  in  these  localities, 
the  age  of  which  is  not  contested,  bones  of  the  bala-notus 
bearing  numerous  deep  inci-sions,  which  it  seems  to  me 
could  otdy  have  been  produced   by  the  action  of  a  cutting 


Age  of  tJic  Ilinnan  Species.  1 5 1 

instnimcnt.  In  some  cases  the  bone  lias  been  broken  off 
upon  one  of  tlie  faces  of  incision,  -wliilst  the  other  is  smooth 
mJ  sharply  detined.  Judging  from  woodcuts  and  casts,  it  is 
impossible  to  avoid  admitting  that  the  cuts  have  been  made 
upon  fresh  bones.  These  incisions  ditTor  entirely  from  those 
found  upon  the  bones  of  halitherium  found  in  the  miocene 
falunian  strata  of  Pouance.  I  have  always  thought  it  impos- 
sible to  attribute  the  latter  to  man,  as  decidedly  as  I  think 
those  which  we  are  now  discussing  ought  to  be  attributed  to 
his  agency.  The  existence  of  pliocene  man  in  Tuscany  is, 
then,  in  my  opinion,  an  acquired  scientific  fact.  Neverthe- 
les.s,  I  sliould  admit  that  this  conclusion  is  not  yet  unani- 
mously accepted,  and  that  it  is  disputed  by  W.  Magitot,  among 
others,  who  relies  upon  his  own  experience. 

VII.  The  researches  of  M.  I'Abbe  Bourgeois  take  us  still 
further  back.  This  practised  and  persevering  observer  has 
discovered  in  the  department  of  Loir-et-Cher,  in  the  Com- 
mune of  Thcnay,  Hints,  the  shape  of  which  he  thinks  can 
oidy  be  attributed  to  man.  Now  geologists  are  unanimous 
ill  considering  these  deposits  as  miocene,  belonging  to  the 
mean  tertiary  age. 

But  the  flints  of  Thenay,  generally  of  small  size,  arc 
almost  all  very  roughly  shaped,  and  many  palaiontologists 
and  archa'ologists  have  considered  the  fractures  to  be  due  to 
nothing  more  than  acciilcntal  blows.  In  1872,  at  the  Congress 
of  Brussels,  the  question  was  submitted  to  a  commission  of 
the  most  competent  men  of  Germany,  England,  France, 
Belgium,  and  Italy,  and  the  judges  disagrocd.  Some  ac- 
cepted and  some  rejected  all  the  flints  exhibited  by  M.  I'Abbe 
Bourgeois.  Some  considered  that  a  small  number  only  could 
be  attributed  to  human  industry.  Others,  again,  thotight  it 
right  to  reserve  their  judgment  and  to  wait  for  fresh  facts. 

I  joined  the  ranks  of  the  latter.  But  since  then  fresh 
specimens  discovered  by  il.  I'Abbe  Bourgeois  have  removed 
my  last  doubts.  A  small  knife  or  scraper,  among  othei*s, 
which  shows  a  fine  regular  finish,  can,  in  my  opinion,  only 
have  been  shaped  by  man.     Nevertheless,  I  do  not  blame 


152  The  Human  Species. 

those  of  my  colleagues  who  deny  or  still  doubt.  In  such  a 
matter  there  is  no  very  great  urgency,  and  doubtless  the 
existence  of  miocene  man  will  be  j)roved,  as  tliat  of  glacial 
and  pliocene  man  has  been — by  facts. 

VIII.  Thus,  man  was  most  certainly  in  existence  during 
the  quaternary  epoch  and  during  the  transition  age  to  which 
the  gravels  of  Saint-Prest  and  the  deposits  of  the  Victoria 
cave  belong.  He  has,  in  all  probability,  seen  miocene  times, 
and  conse<[ucntly  the  entire  pliocene  epoch.  Are  there 
any  reasons  for  believing  that  his  traces  will  be  found  fur- 
ther back  still  ?  Is  the  date  of  his  appearance  necessarily 
connected  with  any  epoch  ?  For  an  answer  to  the.se  (pies- 
tiuns  I  only  see  a  single  order  of  facts  to  which  we  can 
apply. 

We  know  that,  as  far  as  his  body  is  concerned,  man  is  a 
mammal,  anil  nothing  more.  The  conditions  of  existence 
which  are  sufficient  for  these  animals  ought  to  have  been 
sullicient  for  him  also  ;  where  they  liveil,  he  coidd  live.  He 
may  then  have  been  contemporaneous  with  the  earliest 
mammalia,  and  go  back  as  far  as  the  secondary  period. 

rala'oiitologists  of  high  merit  shrink  from  this  proposi- 
tion. Tiiey  do  not  admit  even  the  po.ssibility  of  the  existence 
of  nian  in  miocene  times.  All  tiie  mammalian  fauna  of  tliis 
period  have,  they  say,  disappeared  ;  how  should  man  alone 
have  resisted  against  causes  which  were  sufficiently  powerful 
to  cau.se  a  complete  renewal  of  all  the  beings  with  which  he 
was  most  nearly  coiuiected  ? 

I  roc(»gnise  the  force  of  the  obj(!ction  ;  but  I  also  take  into 
.iccount  humati  intelligence,  which  they  seem  to  forget.  It 
IS  evidently  owing  to  this  intelligence  that  the  man  of  Saint- 
I'rest,  of  the  Victoria  cave,  and  of  Monte  Aperto  has  been 
.dile  to  survive  two  great  geoh>gical  epochs.  He  protected 
hinjHclf  against  (:«<ld  by  lire,  and  so  survived  till  tlu;  return 
of  a  mon;  genial  teinperattire.  Is  it  not  po.ssible,  therefore, 
to  imagine  that  man  of  an  earlier  period  should  iiave  found 
in  his  industry  the  neces,sary  rcsoinces  for  struggling 
a''ain.st  the  conditions  which    the  transition    from  the  later 


Past  Geological  Epochs.  153 

secondary  times  to  the  earlier  tertiary  must  have  imposed 
upon  liim. 

In  fact,  the  most  careful  judges  acknowledge  that  man  has 
seen  the  accomplishments  of  one  of  the  great  changes  on  the 
surface  of  the  globe.  He  has  lived  in  one  of  the  geological 
epochs  to  which  he  was  but  lately  thought  to  be  a  complete 
stranger;  he  has  been  contemporary  with  species  of  mammalia 
which  have  not  even  seen  the  commencement  of  the  present 
epoch.  There  is  then  nothing  impossible  in  the  idea  that  he 
should  have  survived  other  species  of  the  same  clas.s,  or  have 
witnessed  other  geological  revolutions,  or  have  appeared 
upon  the  globe  with  the  first  representatives  of  the  typo  to 
which  he  belongs  by  his  organisation. 

But  this  is  a  question  to  be  proved  by  facts.  Before  we 
can  even  suppose  it  to  be  so,  we  must  wait  for  information 
from  observation. 


LOOK   IV. 

OinciXAL  LOCALISATION  OF  THE   HUMAN  SPKCIES. 


C'lLVrTKR    XTV. 


AGASSIZ  S  TUEORY. — CENTRES   OF   CREATION. 

L  With  tlic  exception  of  Australiusia,  with  wliich  Ave  arc 
but  very  imperfectly  acquainted,  and  of  sonic  islands  and 
deserts  which  we  need  not  take  into  account,  all  the  regions 
visited  by  man  since  the  commencement  of  the  era  of  modern 
discoveries  have  proved  to  be  more  or  less  iidiabited.  In 
wandering  over  the  globe  of  which  he  to^k  possession,  the 
European  has  met  with  man  everywhere,  and  quaternary 
pala'ontology  reveals  him  to  us  upon  the  most  distant  sliores 
of  the  two  continents. 

Arc  all  these  ditferent  populations  indigenous  ?  Is  man  a 
native  of  the  countries  where  he  is  represented  by  history, 
and  where  travellers  have  met  with  him?  or  ha.s  he  rather 
invaded  by  degrees  the  surface  of  the  globe,  starting  from  a 
certain  mnwber  of  points,  or  from  a  single  one?  In  other 
words,  h;us  man,  who  is  now  ci>ni)u>puliltin,  originally  been 
more  or  less  localwciU 

These  questions  hav»;  hi m  answered  alternately  in  the 
different  senses  whieh  they  ailmit  of.  Unfortunately  these 
Holutions  have  too  often  been  influenced  by  considerations 
entirely  foreign  to  science.  It  has  been  thought  necessary 
to  adopt  either  tin;  one  or  the  other  in  the  name  of  dogma 
or  philosophv,  and   this  (picstion   has  bciii  ronroiindrd   with 


A^i^assi::s   T/icory.  155 

tliat  of  monogenism  and  pol^'gcnisiii,  witliout  seeing  that 
upon  this  particular  point  tlie  two  doctrines  must  lead 
anyone  who  remains  faithful  to  the  data  of  science  to  the 
same  result.  Science  has  already  been  shown  to  be  our  only 
possible  guide  ;  let  us  examine  her  teaching  on  this  subject. 

II.  The  doctrine  which  admits  the  multiplicity  of  the 
geographical  origins  of  man,  has  been  more  frequently  a.s- 
SL'rtcd,  than  sustained  by  more  or  less  serious  arguments. 
Agassiz  is  the  only  naturalist  who  has  developed  and  defined 
it,  by  supporting  it  with  general  data.  We  must,  therefore, 
first  examine  these  data,  A  very  short  account  will  explain 
the  reasons  why  I  must,  with  regret,  oppose  one  of  the  men 
whose  learning  and  character  I  have  always  held  in  the  highest 
estimation. 

There  are  singular  points  of  resemblance,  and  no  less 
striking  contrasts  between  Agassiz  and  the  most  extravagant 
disciples  of  Darwin.  The  illustrious  author  of  the  Essay 
on  Classification  is  as  exclusive  a  morphologist  as  the  latter; 
neither  in  his  opinion  nor  in  theirs,  does  the  idea  oi  filia- 
tion form  any  connection  with  that  of  species  ;  he  declares, 
as  they  do,  that  the  questions  of  crossing,  of  constant  or 
limited  fertility,  have  no  real  interest.  We  are  justified  in 
attributing  these  opinions,  so  strange  in  such  an  eminent 
zoologist  as  Agassiz,  to  the  nature  of  his  early  works.  It  is 
well  known  that  he  commenced  his  career  with  his  cele- 
brated researches  upon  fossil  fishes.  We  have  already 
remarked  upon  the  influence  which  is  almost  inevitably 
exercised  by  fossils,  where  form  alone  has  to  be  considered, 
where  nothing  calls  attention  to  the  genealogical  connection 
of  beings,  and  where  wo  meet  with  neither  parents  nor 
otrspring. 

But  while  Darwinists  admit  the  perpetual  i)istahilit}/  of 
specific  forms  and  their  t)'an8mutatioii,  the  illustrious  pro- 
fessor of  Cambridge  believes  in  their  absolute  immutability. 
Upon  this  fundamental  point  he  is  in  exact  opposition  to 
Darwin.  In  1840,  whilst  proclaiming  the  unity  of  the 
human  species,  he  admits  that  the  diversity  which  it  presents 


156  The  Iliinian  Species. 

is  the  result  of  original  "physical  differences.  This  is  really 
nothing  more  than  a  mitigated  polygcnism ;  and,  like  every 
polygcnistic  doctrine,  compels  its  author  to  place  man  in 
contradiction  to  general  laws.  In  1845,  Agassiz  himself  ac- 
cepted this  consequence  in  a  memoir  upon  the  geographical 
distribution  of  animals  and  man.  He  attributed  the  diver- 
sities of  both  to  the  same  causes.  "But,"  he  adds,  "whilst 
in  every  zoological  province  animals  are  of  different  species, 
man,  in  spite  of  the  diversity  of  his  races,  always  forms  one 
and  the  same  species."  The  following  year  he  declared  his 
l)elief  in  "an  indefinite  number  of  primordial  races  of  men 
created  separately." 

Agassiz  has  collected  and  developed  all  his  theories  in  a 
memoir  inserted  at  the  beginning  of  the  great  polygcnistic 
work  entitled  Types  of  Mankind.  It  is  clear  that  Nott  and 
(Jliddon,  the  authors  of  this  work,  were  perfectly  aware  of 
the  real  meaning  of  a  doctrine  which  proclaims  the  specific 
unity  of  man,  while  at  the  same  time  admitting  that  the 
human  races  have  been  created  separately  with  all  tlieir 
distinctive  characters.  We,  also,  must  not  be  deceived,  but 
recognise  Agassiz  as  a  true  polygenist. 

I  shall,  therefore,  be  obliged  to  make  all  those  objections 
U)  the  theory  of  the  eminent  naturalist  which  have  already 
been  stated.  Moreover,  the  singular  association  which  lie 
has  endeavoured  to  establish  between  the  unity  of  species 
and  the  original  character isalinn  of  races,  has  led  him  into 
contradictions  and  consequences  which  are  peculiar  to  him, 
and  which  it  W(juld  scarcely  be  possible  to  pass  by  in  silence, 

Agassiz,  like  the  greater  number  of  polygenists,  gives  no 
intimation  of  what  he  means  by  the  word  race.  Yet  he 
makes  use  of  it  inccssantl}'  and  declares,  for  example,  that 
ho  is  ready  to  show  that  "  the  differences  existing  between 
human  races  are  of  the  same  nature  as  those  which  separate 

f  iniilies,  genera,  and  species  of  apes  or  other  animals " 

"The  chimpanzee  and  the  gorilla,"  he  adds,  "do  not  differ 
from  each  other  more  than  Mandingoes  from  the  Negroes  of 
Guinea;  there  is  less  difference  between  either  of  them  and 


Agassis  s  Theory.  1 5  7 

the  orang,  than  there  is  between  the  Malay  or  the  White 
and  the  Negro." 

Must  not  the  logical  consequence  of  such  positive  language 
be,  that  man  forms  a  zoological  family  comprising  several 
genera  and  many  species,  precisely  similar  to  the  family  of 
anthropoid  apes  ?  But  no  ;  Agassiz  devotes  a  new  paragraph 
to  declaring  that  this  opinion,  which  he  has  expressed  so 
clearly,  agrees  entirely  with  the  theory  of  unity,  and  in  no 
way  brings  human  fraternity  into  question.  In  one  of  his 
first  memoirs  upon  questions  of  this  nature,  he  declared  that 
man  is  an  exceptional  being,  and  we  shall  see  how  far  he 
pushes  this  unavoidable  consequence  of  his  theories. 

In  a  letter  addressed  to  the  same  authors,  and  printed  in 
the  Indigenous  Races  of  the  Earth,  Agassiz  returns  to  the 
same  subject.  lie  here  insists  upon  considerations  which, 
in  his  first  work,  he  had  merely  alluded  to,  and  which  we  are 
truly  astonished  to  receive  from  his  pen.  In  order  to  show 
that  the  same  local  causes  have  acted  upon  man  and  animals, 
he  draws  attention  to  the  resemblance  of  colour,  which, 
according  to  him,  exists  between  the  complexion  of  the 
Malay  and  the  colour  of  the  hair  of  the  Orang ;  from  the 
same  point  of  view  he  compares  the  Negrittoes  and  Telingas 
with  the  gibbons. 

If  it  were  possible  to  consider  seriously  this  comparison 
between  the  skin  of  a  human  group,  and  the  colour  of  the 
hair  of  an  animal,  we  should  have  no  lack  of  arguments  to 
bring  against  the  author.  I  shall  only  remind  my  readers 
that  black  gibbons  are  found  in  Sumatra,  which  is  one  of 
those  islands  where  men  are  considered  by  Agassiz  to 
resemble  the  orang  in  colour. 

Carried  away  by  the  heat  of  controversy  with  those 
naturalists  who  admit  the  unity  of  the  geographical  origin 
of  man,  Agassiz  goes  much  further  than  this.  He  con- 
siders the  various  languages  as  being  of  primitive  origin  as 
well  as  all  other  characters.  Men,  he  asserts,  were  created 
by  nations,  each  of  which  appeared  upon  the  globe  with 
its  own  language.     He  draws  a  comparison  between  these 


158  The  Hur,iaii  Species. 

languages  and  the  voices  of  animals;  he  laughs  at  philologists 
for  their  belief  in  the  discovery  of  any  connection  between 
one  language  and  another.  In  his  opinion,  there  is  just  as 
much  relation  between  one  human  language  and  another, 
as  between  the  growling  of  different  species  of  bears,  the 
mewing  of  the  cats  of  the  two  continents,  the  quacking  of 
ducks,  or  the  song  of  thrushes,  who  all  pour  forth  their  gay 
and  harmonious  notes,  each  in  its  dialect,  which  is  neither 
inlierited  nor  derived  from  another. 

Philologists  will  most  certainly  reject  the  law  as  laid  down 
by  Agassiz.  But  I  must  also  protest  against  the  comparison 
admitted  by  this  illustrious  naturalist.  If  I  attribute  a 
language  to  animals,  I  do  not  forget  how  rudimentary  it  is. 
I  recollect  that  no  animal  has  ever  learnt  the  lanfjua<je  of 
another.  I  know  too  well  the  distance  there  is  between 
animal  interjections  and  articulate  speech,  and  I  am  as  well 
aware  as  anyone  that  to  use  such  an  instrument,  so  as  to 
produce  from  it  true  languages,  cau  only  be  accomplished  by 
the  superior  intelligence  of  man. 

Agassiz,  when  he  had  arrived  at  this  point,  must  have 
felt  that  he  had  lost  himself,  and  that,  in  trying  to  harmonise 
the  idea  of  a  single  human  species  with  that  of  several  races 
of  distinct  origin,  he  was  entering  an  endless  labyrinth.  His 
last  work  betrays  the  signs  of  this  embarrassment  only  too 
clearly.  It  is  probably  in  the  hope  of  escaping  from  it  that 
the  author  has  finally  even  denied  the  existence  of  species. 
After  having  again  rejected  the  criterion  drawn  from  crossing 
and  degrees  of  fertility,  he  adds:  "With  it  disappears  in  its 
turn  the  pretended  reality  of  species  as  opposed  to  the  mode 
of  existence  of  genera,  families,  orders,  classes  and  branches. 
Reality  of  existence  is,  in  fact,  possessed  by  individuals  alone." 
Thus,  from  adhering  solely  to  morphology,  from  a  disregard 
of  the  ]jhysical  side  of  the  question,  from  having  allowed 
themselves  to  be  guided  by  a  logic  which  is  only  founded 
upon  incomplete  data,  Agassiz  and  Darwin  have  arrived  at 
a  similar  result.  Both  have  disregarded  this  great  fact, 
intelligible  to  common  sense,  demonstrated   by  science,  and 


A^assiz's   Theory.  159 

which  governs  everything  in  zoology,  as  it  does  in  botany, 
the  division,  namely,  of  organised  beings  into  elementary  and 
fundamental  groups  which  propagate  in  space  and  time.  But 
Darwin,  starting  from  the  2>}ienomena  of  variations  which 
are  presented  by  these  beings,  considers  f^pecies  as  only  races. 
Agassiz,  entirely  preoccupied  with  the  lyhenomcna  of  fixity, 
finally  considers  individuals  only  as  existing  in  living 
nature.  Both  forget  that  the  great  Buffon  passed  suc- 
cessively to  both  these  extremes  only  to  return  again  to  the 
doctrine  which  includes  and  explains  all  facts,  and  which 
may  be  summed  up  in  these  worJs :  distinction  of  race  and 
species. 

III.  In  spite  of  these  dogmatic  assertions,  when  it  comes 
to  application  of  any  kind  whatever,  Agassiz,  like  Lamarck 
in  former  times,  and  Darwin  in  our  own  day,  is  obliged  to 
use  the  word  species  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  employed  by 
so  many  others.  In  the  memoir,  from  which  I  have  already 
quoted,  animal  and  vegetable  species  are  constantly  being 
discussed.  Their  geographical  distribution  serves  as  a  founda- 
tion to  the  theory  of  human  origins.  The  author  admits  that 
they  could  not  have  arisen  upon  one  and  the  same  point  of 
the  globe ;  that  the  centres  of  creation  were  numerous,  and 
that  the  species  diverging  from  these  centres  give  to  the 
actual  flora  and  fauna  all  their  characteristic  features. 

Up  to  this  point  Agassiz  has  only  accepted  the  doctrine  of 
centres  of  creation,  a  doctrine  entirely  French  in  origin, 
having  been  formulated  by  Desmoulins  and  developed  by 
^[.  Edwards. 

What  is  due  to  Agassiz  is  the  reproduction,  in  the  name 
of  science,  of  a  theory  at  first  proposed  by  La  Peyrere  in  the 
name  of  theology  :  giving  to  man  the  whole  world  as  his 
original  home:  the  admission  that  the  human  races  oricjinated 
in  the  same  places  as  the  gi'oups  of  animal  and  vegetable 
species,  and  the  connection  of  one  of  these  races  with  each 
centre  of  creation ;  the  multiplication  of  the  number  of 
human  creations  to  such  a  degree  as  to  profess  that  "  man 
was  created  by  nations,"  endowed  from  the  first  with  all 
8 


i6o  The  Hjinian  Species. 

their  distinctive  cliaiactcrs,  ami  cacli  speaking  its  own 
special  language. 

There  is,  at  first  sight,  no  aLsunlity  in  the  idea  itself, 
nothing  at  all  contradictory  to  anything  Avhich  we  have  as 
yet  met  with.  We  have  seen  above  that  physiology  leads  to 
the  conclusion  that  "  human  groups  are  io  all  appearance 
descended  from  one  primitive  pair."  It  goes  no  further  than 
that.  Anyone  who  confines  himself  to  inferences  drawn 
from  this  order  of  facts  might,  therefore,  accept  the  theory  of 
Agassiz  as,  it  is  true,  a  very  gratuitous  hypothesis,  but  con- 
venient in  order  to  account  for  the  distribution  and  actual 
diversity  of  human  types. 

This  is  no  longer  the  case  when  we  turn  to  another  branch 
of  the  natural  sciences,  zovlugical  and  botanical  geof/raphy. 
We  then  can  easily  prove  that  the  theories  of  Agassiz  tend  to 
make  an  exception  of  man,  to  place  him  at  variance  with  the 
general  laws  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  all  other 
organised  beings,  and,  consequently,  that  they  are  false. 

IV.  I  fully  agree  with  the  views  of  Agassiz,  as  far  as 
centres  of  creation,  or  rather  centres  of  appearance  are 
concerned. 

All  who  confine  themselves  to  the  data  of  observation  and 
experiment  will  see  at  once  that  all  animal  and  vegetable 
species  could  not  have  originated  upon  any  one  spot  of  the 
globe.  The  former  shows  us,  in  various  regions,  diflerent 
types  and  sj)ecies,  living  naturally  in  countries  which  present 
•almost  precisely  the  same  conditions  of  existence.  The  latter 
teaches  us  that  we  can  transport  the  greater  number  of 
species  from  one  region  to  anotl'.er,  and  that  they  will 
prosper  there,  if  the  conditions  of  existence  are  the  same  ; 
that,  on  the  contrary,  arctic  and  tropical  species  cannot,  even 
Ifrnporarily,  be  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  same  conditions; 
that  neither  can  withstand  the  action  of  a  temperate  climate. 
It  is  irnpossil)le  witli  all  these  facts  to  avoid  the  conclusion 
tiiat  j)lants  and  animals  had  several  points  of  appearance. 

But  if  I  accept  this  doctrine  as  the  only  one  reconcilable 
with  facts,  it   is  iijjon  the  coiiditiim  of  adopting  it  entirely, 


Agassi zs   Theory.  i6i 

and  as  developed  by  studies  upon  the  geographical  distribu- 
tion of  all  living  beings.  Now,  works  of  this  kind  are 
numerous  at  the  present  time. 

For  all  phanerogamous  plants  we  have  the  work  of  M. 
Ad.  de  Candolle,  which  has  been  a  standard  work  ever  since 
its  appearance. 

Animals  have  not  yet  had  their  de  Candolle.  The  great 
work  of  M.  Alphonse  Edwards  will  partly  fill  up  this  gap 
for  the  more  southern  regions  of  the  globe.  In  the  mean- 
time, important  investigations  have  been  made  in  some  of 
the  principal  classes.  Buffon,  by  his  admirable  researches 
upon  the  geography  of  mammals,  opened  the  way,  in  which 
he  has  been  followed  by  the  two  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaires, 
Fr.  Cuvier,  and  Andrew  Murray ;  Dumeril  and  Bibron  have 
studied  reptiles  from  the  same  point  of  view ;  Frabricius, 
Latrcille,  Macley,  Spcnce,  Kirby,  and  Lacordaire  have  done 
the  same  for  insects  ;  M.  Milne  Edwards  has  worked  out  the 
distribution  of  the  Crustacea ;  I  have  endeavoured  .to  do  as 
much  for  the  annelids.  Finally,  a  great  number  of  works 
bearing  upon  the  lower  groups  have  long  been  known  to 
science,  and  Agassiz  him.self  has  largely  contributed  to  in- 
crease our  knowledge  in  this  direction. 

A  certain  number  of.  general  facts  stand  out  from  this 
mass  of  research,  which  we  call  laws.  If  the  theory  of 
Agassiz  is  true,  it  ought  to  agree  with  these  laws.  Now  the 
disagreement  is  apparent  from  the  outset. 

Let  us  prove,  in  the  first  place,  that  this  theory  includes 
two  very  distinct  ideas  :  that  of  the  original  cosmopolitanism 
of  the  human  species;  and,  secondly,  that  of  a  geographical 
connection  between  the  human  race  and  the  animal  or  vege- 
table groups  observed  in  a  common  centre.  Let  us  examine 
the  truth  and  error  contained  in  this  last  statement. 

Agassiz  holds  that  the  influence  of  the  centre  of  appearance 
is  general  and  absolute.  It  extends  to  all  the  products  of 
the  soil  as  well  as  to  those  of  fresh  and  salt  waters.  A 
country  is  just  as  much  characterised  by  its  plants  and 
animals  as  by  its  human  beings.     In  his  opinion,  an  esseu- 


1 62  The  Human  Species. 

tially  local  force  seems  to  have  produced  all  beings,  or  at 
least  to  have  imprinted  upon  them  a  common  mark. 

This  generalisation  was  inevitable.  Any  one  who  wishes 
to  attach  a  human  race  to  each  centre  of  appearance  is  com- 
pelled to  localise  in  each  one  of  them  the  original  cause  of 
all  the  animal  and  vegetable  forms  which  are  indigenous  in 
it.  For  all  living  beings  geographical  coincidence  must  bo 
ab.s()lute. 

Now  there  is  generally  no  such  coincidence.  From  the 
waters  of  a  river  to  the  banks  which  enclose  it,  the  contrast 
may  be  striking.  This  is  exactly  what  was  shown  by  the  dis- 
coveries of  Agassiz  himself  in  the  ichth3'ology  of  the  Amazon. 
To  anyone  who  accepts  the  results  published  by  the  illus- 
trious traveller,  it  is  evident  that  this  fauna  may  be  divided 
into  groups  nuich  more  narrowly  confined  than  those  of 
terrestrial  fauna.  The  same  fact  may  be  observed  upon 
the  shores  of  two  seas  separated  by  even  a  very  narrow 
strip  of  land.  The  terrestrial  fauna  and  flora  are  the  same 
throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  whilst 
M.  Edwards  has  not  found  a  single  species  of  Crustacea 
common  to  both  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red  Sea,  and 
the  study  of  annelids  has  led  me  to  the  same  result. 

Moreover,  the  same  region  may  be  the  centre  of  appear- 
ance for  one  class  of  animals,  but  by  no  means  for  another. 
Australia,  for  example,  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic 
centres  for  mammals,  and  stands  alone  from  this  point  of 
view  among  the  surrounding  countries.  "With  respect  to 
in.sects  Australia  agrees,  on  the  contrary,  with  New  Zealand, 
New  Caledonia  and  the  neighbouring  islands.  I  have  bor- 
rowed this  l.'ust  fact  from  Lacordaire.  It  has  the  more  value 
since  this  entomologist  has  multipUcd  the  centres  of  appear- 
ance to  a  much  greater  extent  than  Agassiz,  and  has,  there- 
fore, made  their  characterisation  easier. 

Tiius  the  coincidence  admitted  by  Agassiz,  far  from  extend- 
ing to  all  tiie  organised  beings  of  a  region,  does  not  even  exist 
in  certain  cases  between  the  different  classes  of  animals  alone. 

V.  Agassiz  divides  the  entire  surface  of  the  irlobe  into  nine 


A^^assizs  Theory.  163 

great  regions  or  kingdoms.  I  cannot  here  give  in  detail  tbe 
numerous  criticisms  to  wliicli  the  fixed  limits  and  characteri- 
sation of  these  centres  arc  open.  I  shall  confine  myself  to  a 
few  short  remarks  upon  each. 

1.  Polynesian  Kingdom.  We  shall  see  presently  that  it 
is  impossible  to  regard  Polynesia  as  a  centre  of  human 
apix;arance.  This  region  has  been  entirely  peopled  by 
migration  from  the  Indian  Archipelago,  the  history  of  which 
has  been  partly  preserved.  The  first  kingdom  of  Agassiz 
must  be  struck  out  as  far  as  we  are  concerned  ;  it  is  an 
exclusively  animal  and  vegetable  centre.  Agassiz,  moreover, 
though  he  supports  it  in  the  text  and  upon  the  map,  does 
not  assign  it  a  place  in  the  illustrated  table,  in  which  he 
sums  up  his  ideas. 

2.  Australian  Kingdom.  Agassiz  includes  New  Guinea 
in  this  kingdom.  He  thus  destroys  the  homogeneity  of  the 
mammalogical  fauna.  At  the  same  time  he  unites  the 
several  human  races  of  Australia  with  the  Negrittoes  and 
Papuans.     This  alone  destroys  all  unity  of  type. 

3.  Malay  01'  Indian  Kingdom.  This  kingdom  com- 
prises India,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  the  Andaman 
Islands.  Now,  anterior  to  the  Aryan  conquest,  Yellows  and 
Blacks  lived  in  India.  The  latter  are  still  found  in  a  pure 
state^in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  and  in  the  Andaman  Is- 
lands ;  IMalay.sia  presents  a  perfect  mixture  of  most  ditferent 
races,  from  the  White  to  the  Negro.  The  Malays,  properly 
so-called,  are  much  rather  a  population  levelled  by  the  action 
of  Islamism,  than  a  race  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word  ;  thoy 
present  in  a  high  degree  the  characters  of  intercrossing.  All 
these  facts  protest  against  the  idea  of  making  these  regions 
a  centre  of  iiuman  appearance. 

4.  Hottentot  Fauna.  Agassiz  abandons  the  expression 
kingdom  in  speaking  of  the  south  of  Africa,  Avithout  giving 
any  rea.son  for  the  change.  Whatever  the  cause  may  be, 
this  is  one  of  the  least  unfavourable  regions  for  the  applica- 
tion of  his  theory.  Froni  a  geological  or  botanical  point  of 
view,   South    Africa    constitutes    a   veritable   centre.      The 


164  The  Iliiuian  Species. 

Bosjesman  and  the  Hottentot  might  bo  considered  as  the 
characteristic  human  type.  But  tlie  Negroes  of  Delagoa  and 
the  Kaffirs  still  protest  against  this  partial  coincidence. 

5.  Afncan  Kingdom.  This  region  is  considered  by 
Agassiz  to  comprise  the  rest  of  Africa,  with  the  exception  of 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  He  adds  Madagascar  and 
the  southern  half  of  the  Arabian  peninsula.  Now,  from  a 
mammalogical  point  of  view,  Madagascar  forms  a  little  centre 
of  itself,  whilst  the  human  population  is  very  mixed.  The 
Hovas  are  very  slightly  modified  Malays,  and  the  languages 
of  the  Sacalaves  themselves  indicate  relations  with  the 
Malayo-Polynesians.  As  to  the  continental  portion  of  the 
kingdom,  it  is  enough  to  remark  that  it  includes  Negroes, 
Ab^'ssinians,  Arabs,  etc.  History,  as  well  as  the  present 
state  of  things,  protests  against  the  connection  made  in  this 
case  by  the  author. 

6.  European  Kinr/dom.  TJiis  division  Agassiz  considers 
as  comprising  the  entire  circumference  of  the  Mediterranean, 
Persia  and  Beloocliistan.  Consequently  it  embraces  very 
different  fauna  and  flora;  it  mixes  up  Aryan,  Semitic 
and  Chamitic  populations,  and  takes  no  account  of  history. 
Agassiz  himself  recognises  this  fact,  and  declares  that  he  has 
only  taken  into  consideration  pre-historic  times.  Since  the 
(Quaternary  epoch,  however,  France  alone  has  siipported 
tribes  Avhich  were  tall  and  dolichocephalic,  .'tnd  others  which 
were  short  and  brach^x-ephalic.  Finally,  although  Agassiz 
includi-s  the  Persians  with  the  Europeans,  he  leaves  out  the 
Hindoos  who  are  ethnologically  connected  with  them,  and 
places  them  in  an  entirely  ditferent  kingdom. 

7.  Minitjolldii  or  AsUdlc  Klui/doin.  IMiis  kingdom  en- 
clo.scs  all  the  central  portion  of  Asia,  beginning  at  the 
JJolor  and  the  Himalayas,  and  extending  as  far  as  Jajjan. 
'J'Ik!  Mongfjl  is  taken  as  the  human  type  of  this  vast  extent 
of  country.  liut  Agassiz  forgets  the  Aryans  of  the  Bolor, 
tlie  wliitt;  Jutehis,  the  Japanese  of  the  same  type,  the  Ainos, 
etc.  He  unit(s,  therefore,  jx-oplc  which  belong  to  at  least 
two  extreme  types  of  mankind. 


Agassi zs   Theory.  165 

8.  Aw^^^an  Klnr/dom.  Agassiz  makes  but  one  king- 
dom of  the  Avhole  of  America,  whilst  all  zoologists  and 
botanists  are  agreed  in  dividing  it  into  at  least  two  great 
and  distinctly  characterised  centres.  He  adopts  the  opinion 
of  Morton,  who  only  admits  one  human  race  in  America, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Esquimaux.  Now,  since  the 
jiublication  of  d'Orbigny's  Homme  Americain,  it  is  no 
longer  possible  to  believe  in  this  uniformity.  The  numerous 
investigations  which  have  been  undertaken  upon  this  ques- 
tion have,  moreover,  proved  still  more  strongly  the  multi- 
plicity of  races  admitted  by  this  traveller.  Again,  if  the 
human  races  of  America  are  compared  with  those  of  the  old 
world,  "we  shall  find,  with  a  few  exceptions,  a  very  close 
connection  ■with  Asia,  especially  in  certain  populations  of 
Central  America :  if  we  compare  the  fauna  and  flora,  the 
connection  is,  on  the  contrary,  closer  in  North  America. 
These  facts  are  in  direct  opposition  with  the  theory  of 
Agassiz. 

9.  Arctic  Kingdom.  This  latter  kingdom  deserves  a 
little  more  attention  than  the  others.  It  comprises  all  the 
northern  regions  of  the  two  continents.  The  southern  limit 
is  somewhat  arbitrarily  fixed  by  Agassiz  at  the  zone  of 
forests.  In  no  region  of  the  world  does  man  meet  with  such 
identical  conditions  of  existence,  for  all  are  governed  by  cold. 
It  would  seem,  thorefitre,  to  be  better  able  than  any  other  to 
justify  the  author's  theory,  and  yet  facts  agree  but  very 
slightly  with  it. 

Agassiz  characterises  this  kingdom  by  the  existence  of 
one  plant  and  six  species  of  animals,  five  mammals  and  one 
bird.  The  plant  is  tlie  Iceland  lichen  (cenomyce  rangiferina). 
Now,  this  lichen  is  so  little  characteristic  of  polar  re^^ions 
that  it  is  found  in  many  parts  of  France,  and  even  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Paris  at  Fontainebleau.  M.  Decaisne 
believes  that  our  hares  and  rabbits  live  upon  it  in  winter,  as 
the  reindeer  do  in  Ija})land.  Further,  the  observations 
recently  made  in  Greenland  by  the  German  Polar  Expe- 
dition, show  that  in  this  countrv,  whicli,  of  all  countries  in 


1 66  TJic  n inn  an  Species. 

the  Arctic  Kingdom,  should  most  readily  adapt  itself  to  the 
conceptions  of  Agassiz,  and  which  is  inhabited  by  pure- 
blooded  Esquimaux,  possesses  scarcely  one  vegetable  species 
which  can  be  said  to  be  peculiar  to  it,  and  that  a  great 
number  of  them  are  found  in  the  Alps,  and  upon  the  summits 
of  the  Vosf^es.  It  is  a  result  of  the  return  of  heat  after  the 
glacial  epoch,  the  species  which  resisted  it  having  emigrated 
in  altitude  as  well  as  in  latitude. 

In  animal  species,  the  white  bear  and  the  walrus  are 
really  polar.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Greenland  seal 
considered  as  a  species.  But  as  a  type  we  meet  with  it 
everywhere ;  as  a  genus  it  inhabits  all  the  seas  of  Europe. 
The  reindeer  inhabited  France  in  the  Quaternary  epoch  ;  it 
was  living  in  Germany  in  Caesar's  time  ;  it  descended  yearly 
to  the  Caspian  Sea  during  the  lifetime  of  Pallas.  The  true 
whale  used  to  visit  our  coast  before  it  was  driven  away  by 
man.  Finally,  at  this  day,  the  eider  duck  builds  yearly  in 
Denmark,  ten  to  fifteen  degrees  south  of  the  Polar  circle. 
Thus,  in  the  six  species  mentioned  by  Agassiz  iis  peculiar  to 
liis  Arctic  Kingdom,  three  at  least  belong  equally  to  his 
European  Kingdom. 

A"as.siz  was  certaiidy  more  capable  than  anyone  else  of 
nicely  characterising  the  region  in  question,  if  it  had  been 
possible  to  do  so.  He  failed,  because  there  is  in  reality  no 
such  thing  as  a  true  Arctic  fauna.  The  cause  of  this  lies  in 
the  extension  of  more  southern  fauna,  which  become  im- 
poverished as  they  .advanced  northwards,  but  change  their 
character  very  slightly.  In  reality,  this  kingdom  is  broken 
up  into  indei)endent  provinces,  or  ratiier,  is  connected  with 
regions  situated  more  to  the  south,  and  consequently  better 
divided.  'J'lie  Polar  region,  says  Lacordaire,  in  speaking  of 
in.sects,  is  eharacterised  less  by  the  speciality  of  its  products 
than  by  their  scarcity.  All  these  facts,  again,  are  the  con- 
sequence (jf  the  peopling  of  the  Arctic  regions  after  the 
glacial  epoch. 

It  would  Reem  that  ni.ui  at  least  might  present  at  the 
pole  the  homogeneity  suj)posed  by  tiie  theory.     It  is  not  so, 


Agassizs  Theory.  167 

however,  wliatever  may  be  the  assertions  of  Agassiz  upon 
this  subject.  "  A  pecuhar  race  of  man,"  he  says,  "live  there, 
known  in  America  by  the  name  of  Esquimaux,  elsewhere  by 
that  of  Lapps,  Samoyedes  or  Tchouktchis.  .  .  The  uniformity 
of  their  characters  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  Arctic 
seas  unites  them  in  a  striking  manner  with  the  fauna  with 
wliich  they  are  so  closely  connected." 

There  are,  in  these  words  of  Agassiz,  grave  ethnological 
and  anthropological  errors.  The  uniformity  of  characters  of 
which  he  speaks  does  not  exist  at  all.  It  will  suffice  to 
remind  my  readers  that  the  Lapps  are  one  of  the  most 
brachyccphalic,  and  the  Esquimaux  one  of  the  most  dolicho- 
cephalic races  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  In  fiict,  these 
two  races  are  so  entirely  distinct  that  no  anthropologist  has 
ever  dreamt  of  establishing  a  connection  between  them. 

As  to  the  Samoyedes  and  Tchouktchis,  they  have  not 
always  inhabited  the  icy  lands  where  we  now  meet  with 
them.  The  former  have  still  a  recollection  of  havinjr  come 
from  the  south,  and  M.  de  Tchiatchef  has  discovered  the 
original  stock  upon  the  confines  of  China.  The  latter  settled 
at  Behring's  Straits  but  a  short  time  ago  to  free- themselves 
from  Russian  conquest,  against  which  they  had  bravely 
struggled.  They  subjugated  and  absorbed  the  Yukagiros, 
tiieir  predecessors.  They  ditTcr,  moreover,  equally  from 
Esquimaux  and  Lapps. 

Thus,  in  the  Arctic  Kingdom,  where  all  the  most  favour- 
able conditions  for  the  display  of  any  truth  whicii  the  ideas 
of  Agassiz  may  possess  are  brought  together,  everything 
protests  against  these  ideas.  In  spite  of  his  vast  knowledge, 
lie  could  not  characterise  it  zoologically  in  a  precise  manner ; 
the  special  fauna  which  he  admits  does  not  exist ;  the 
identity  of  populations  which  he  proclaimed  disappears  under 
the  slightest  examination. 

Finally,  the  theory  which  attaches  a  human  race  to  every 
centre  of  appearance  as  a  local  product  of  that  centre,  ought 
to  be  rejected  by  anj-one  who  sets  the  least  value  upon  the 
results  of  observation. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

PllOGUESSIVE  LOCALISATION  OF  ORGANISED  BEINGS.— CENTRES 
OF  APPEARANCE. — ORIGINAL   LOCALISATION   OF   MAN. 

I.  An  eminent  man  may  draw  incorrect  conclusions  from 
the  existence  of  centres  of  appearance  without  their  existence 
being  any  the  less  real.  Unconnected  with  animal  or  vege- 
table centres,  the  human  races  might  have  their  own  ;"man 
miMit  have  come  into  existence  wherever  we  meet  with  him. 
But,  before  we  accept  this  original  cosmopolitanism,  we  must 
assure  ourselves  that  it  subjects  man  to  general  laws.  Now 
we  shall  see  that  this  hypothesis  is,  on  the  contrary,  at 
variance  with  all  general  fsicts  presented  by  plants  as  well  as 
aiiiinals. 

II.  Lot  us  first  prove  that  no  animal  or  vegetable  species 
inhabits,  as  man  does,  almost  the  entire  globe. 

The  assertion  of  Ad.  de  CandoUe  could  not  be  more 
precise  as  far  as  plants  are  concerned.  "  No  phanerogamous 
l)Iant,"  he  say.<,  "  is  distributed  over  the  entire  surface  of  the 
earth.  There  are  only  eighteen  whose  area  extends  to  half 
the  globe.  No  tree  or  shrub  figures  among  these  plants, 
which  are  so  widely  distributed."  This  latter  remark  belongs 
to  an  order  of  considerations  whicli  we  shall  meet  with 
again. 

Being  unable  to  enter  into  an  oxaiuination  of  all  the;  facts 
which  art"  otVered  by  the  various  classes  of  the  Animal 
Kingdom  frutn  this  point  of  view,  I  shall  confine  myself  to 
a  few  details  upon  bir^ls  and  mammals. 

We  should  expect  to  find  tlie  former  presenting  very  ex- 
tensive areas  of  habitati(jn  by  reason  of  their  mode  of  loco- 
motion.    It  is,  in  fact,  among  them  tliat  we  find  some  of  the 


Progressive  Localisation  of  Organised  Beings.     169 

species   which   most   deserve   the   epithet  of  cosmopolitan. 
They  do  not,  however,  equal  man  in  this  respect. 

The  stock-dove,  the  parent  stock  of  our  domestic  pigeon, 
extends  from  the  south  of  Norway  to  Madeira  and  Abyssinia, 
from  the  Shetland  Islands  to  Borneo  and  Japan ;  but  it  does 
not  reach  as  far  as  either  the  equator  or  the  polar  circle  ;  and 
it  is  wanting  both  in  America  and  Polynesia. 

The  fulvous  vulture  is  found  in  all  the  temperate  regions 
of  the  old  world,  crosses  the  equator  in  Africa  and  descends 
as  far  as  the  Cape.  But  we  do  not  meet  with  it  either  in  our 
polar  regions,  in  America  or  in  Polynesia. 

The  peregrine  falcon  has  perhaps  of  all  animals  the  widest 
area.  It  is  found  in  America,  as  also  in  all  the  warm  or 
temperate  regions  of  the  old  world.  It  is  supposed  to  exist 
in  Australia,  but  we  do  not  meet  with  it  either  in  Polynesia 
or  in  the  polar  regions. 

Among  mammals,  whales,  on  account  of  their  immense 
powers  of  locomotion  and  the  continuity  of  seas,  would  seem 
to  be  adapted  to  true  cosmopolitanism.  This,  however,  is  not 
the  case.  They  are  almost  all  confined  within  relatively  very 
limited  areas,  and  rarely  pass  beyond  their  customary  boun- 
daries. Commodore  Maury  regarded  the  equatorial  sea  as 
forming  an  invincible  obstacle  to  their  passage  from  one 
hemisphere  to  the  other.  Two  exceptions  have,  however, 
been  observed  to  this  rule.  A  rorqual  {Mcgajjtera  lonrji- 
tnana)  and  a  SlhahUus  latlceps  are  said  to  have  crossed 
this  barrier,  and  to  have  passed  from  our  seas  to  those  of 
the  Cape  and  of  Java.  These  exceptions  might  easily  be 
explained  by  various  accidental  circumstances.  Supposin^i^ 
however  we  were  to  accept  them  as  testifying  an  exceptional 
relative  cosmopolitanism,  we  still  have  the  fact  that  they 
have  never  been  met  with  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

With  the  exception  of  whales,  we  shall  find  nothing  at  all 
resembling  cosmopolitanism.  Setting  a.side  the  whole  of 
Oceania,  we  only  find,  as  common  to  both  the  Old  and  the 
New  World,  two  or  three  ruminants,  perhaps  a  bear,  a  fox 
and  a  wolf.     All  these  species  are,  moreover,  more  or  less 


170  The  Human  Species. 

polar,  and  arc  wanting  in  the  central  regions  of  the  two 
worlds.  Finally,  there  is  not  one  species  of  cheiroptera  or 
quadrumana  which  is  indigenous  both  in  America  and  the 
Old  World. 

Beyond  those  species  which  man  has  disseminated  by 
making  them  follow  his  migrations,  animals  and  plants 
evidently  occupy  their  natural  area,  wherein  lies  the  centre 
from  which  they  have  spread.  We  see  that  even  after  this 
dispersion  none  of  them  have  acquired  an  area  of  habitation 
Avhich  can  be  compared  to  that  of  man. 

The  admission  that  the  human  species  appeared  in  every 
place  in  which  it  is  found,  attributing  to  it  an  original  cos- 
mopolitanism, would  make  it  a  solitary  exception  in  contra- 
diction to  the  facts  presented  by  all  other  species.  An 
hypothesis  which  leads  to  such  a  conclusion  should  be 
rejected  as  irreconcilable  with  the  results  of  observation.  If 
man  is  now  to  be  found  everywhere,  it  is  owing  to  his  intel- 
ligence and  industry. 

III.  This  conclusion  is  forced  even  upon  polygeuists  them- 
selves ;  unless,  indeed,  they  would  reject,  as  inapplicable  to 
man,  the  laws  of  zoological  and  botanical  geography. 

In  fact,  to  whatever  extent  they  may  have  multiplied  their 
human  species,  they  have  been  obliged,  upon  even  the 
slightest  study  of  natural  history,  to  unite  them  into  a  single 
genus.  Now,  all  that  has  just  been  said  of  species  applies 
equally  to  genera.  The  area  of  habitation  is  doubtless  in- 
creased, and,  for  example,  some  genera  of  cetaceans,  as 
dulpliiiis  and  ronpials,  are  found  in  all  seas;  and  amongst 
terrestrial  mammals,  some  genera  of  ruminants  and  carni- 
vora  inhabit,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  both  the  Old  and 
the  New  World.  But  they  are  all  absent  in  the  greater  part 
(»f  Oceania. 

Moreover,  tlic;  higher  the  types,  tlic  fewer  is  the  number  of 
these  genera  of  widely  extended  areas.  Cheiroptera,  which 
are  not  provided  with  a  nasal  niendirane,  have  some  genera 
common  to  both  the  Old  and  the  New  World.  This  is  no 
longer  the  case  in  cheiroptera,  in  which  the  nose  is  provided 


Progressive  Localisation  of  Organised  Beings.     1 7 1 

with  a  membrane.  There  is  not  a  single  genus  among  them, 
any  more  than  among  quaJrumana,  wliich  inhabits  both 
America  and  the  Old  World. 

Consequently,  polygenists  must  admit  that  the  species  of 
which  their  Inimaii  genus  is  composed  could  not  have  come 
into  existence  in  every  place  where  man  is  now  found,  unless 
they  wish  to  make  a  striking  exception  of  this  human 
genus. 

IV.  Should  we  wish  to  regard  the  human  races  as  forming 
a  family  composed  of  several  genera,  or  even  as  an  order 
comprising  several  families,  the  same  difficulties  would 
present  themselves. 

Setting  aside  the  marsujiials  and  edentata,  to  which  we 
shall  return,  it  is  true  that  the  great  normal  orders  of  terres- 
trial mammals,  the  ruminants,  rodents,  insectivora,  and  car- 
nivora  are  almost  as  cosmopolitan  as  man.  But  this  is  no 
longer  the  case  with  the  cheiroptera,  not  one  of  which  passes 
the  polar  circle.  As  to  the  quadrumana,  it  is  well-known 
that  they  are  wanting  in  Europe,  Avith  the  exception  of  the 
Rock  of  Gibraltar,  in  North  America  and  in  the  greater  part 
of  Asia  and  Oceania.  Thus  it  appears  that,  even  in  the 
extreme  hypothesis  which  I  have  here  indicated,  it  would 
not  be  in  the  animal  types  which  present  the  greatest  resem- 
blance to  man,  but  among  the  carnivora  or  ruminants  that 
we  should  be  forced  to  seek  for  geographical  analogies  in 
favour  of  the  pretended  cosmopolitanism  of  the  human 
order. 

V.  This  limitation  of  the  areas  of  habitation  of  animals, 
which  is  evidently  related  to  their  degree  of  elevation  in  the 
scale  of  beings,  is  a  general  fact  which  we  also  meet  with  in 
plants.  On  this  point  Ad.  de  Candolle  speaks  as  follows  : — 
"  The  mean  area  of  species  is  smaller  according  as  the  class 
to  which  they  belong  has  a  more  complete,  a  more  highly 
developed,  or,  in  other  words,  a  more  perfect  organisation." 

The  i^rogressive  localisation  of  organised  beings,  increas- 
ing in  degree  as  they  become  more  perfect,  is,  then,  a  general 
law.     Physiology  will  readily  account  for  this  fact. 


172  TJie  HtLinan  Species. 

The  perfection  of  organisms  is  the  result  of  division  of 
labour,  which  demands  the  multiplication  of  functional  ap- 
paratus. As  the  anatomical  instniments  become  more 
numerous  and  special,  the  functions  do  the  same.  From 
this  cause  alone  the  conditions  of  harmony  between  the 
livins:  beinfj  and  the  conditions  of  life  which  surround  it 
become  more  and  more  definite.  Consequently,  the  animal 
or  the  plant  only  finds  its  really  favourable  conditions  in  a 
constantly  diminishing  area.  Beyond  these  limits  the  con- 
ditions of  life  change,  the  struggle  for  existence  becomes 
more  hazardous,  and  the  spread  of  the  species,  genus,  family, 
or  even  order  is  arrested.  Man  alone,  armed  against  the 
conditions  of  life  by  his  intelligence  and  industry,  is  capable 
of  overcoming  conditions  of  existence  which  would  be  an 
impassable  barrier  to  his  material  organisation. 

The  law  of  progi-essive  localisation  is  in  direct  opposition 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  original  cosmopolitanism  of  the  human 
species.  In  putting  it  aside,  polygcnists,  properly  so  called, 
might  draw  attention  to  the  diffusion  of  the  genera  of 
dolphins  and  rorquals ;  polygenistic  monogenists  of  the 
school  of  Agassiz  might  argue  from  the  facts  mentioned 
above  in  connection  with  the  genera  of  megaptera  and 
sibaldius  ;  they  might  both  say  :  The  general  lav/  of  localisa- 
tion offers  two  exceptions ;  why  should  not  man  form  a 
third? 

The  analogy,  it  is  clear,  is  fundamentally  wrong.  Dolphins, 
rorquals  and  sibaldius  belong  to  the  lowest  order  of  mam- 
mals ;  man,  even  if  his  body  alone  is  considered,  belongs 
incontcstably  to  the  highest  order.  Unless  we  make  him  a 
.solitary  exception,  it  is  to  the  laws  of  the  superior  groups 
that  he  should  be  subject,  and  not  to  those  of  the  inferior. 

Thus,  we  are  so  far  justified  in  affirming  that  man  could 
not  have  been  originally  cosmopolitan.  But  Ave  can  go 
further. 

VI.  Without  having  come  into  existence  in  every  place 
where  we  now  meet  with  him,  man  may  have  had  several 
centres  of  appearance.     Let  us  examine  this  latter  question. 


Progressive  Localisation  of  Organised  Beings,     i  "j'^^ 

The  laws  of  progressive  localisation  and  the  characterisation 
of  centres  enable  us  both  to  put  the  question  and  to  solve  it. 

Let  us  re-examine  from  this  point  of  view  the  animal 
groups,  setting  aside  all  inferior  groups  and  confining  our 
attention  to  anthropoid  apes.  In  this  family,  which  most 
closely  resembles  man  in  its  organisation,  there  arc  degrees 
also.  The  law  of  progressive  localisation  applies  to  this 
limited  group  equally  with  the  entire  kingdom. 

We  meet  Avith  the  entire  family  in  Asia,  in  the  peninsula 
of  Malacca,  in  Assam  to  26°  N.  Lat.,  in  Sumatra,  Java, 
Borneo  and  in  the  Philippine  Islands ;  in  Eastern  Africa 
from  10°  S.  to  15°  N.  Lat.  The  gibbon  genus,  however, 
which  is  the  lowest,  is  the  only  one  which  occupies  the  whole 
of  Asia,  The  orang  is  confined  to  Borneo  and  Sumatra.  In 
Africa  the  chimpanzee  extends  almost  from  the  Zaire  to 
Senegal;  the  gorilla  has  only  been  found  on  the  Gaboon,  and 
perhaps  in  Ashantee.  Were  he  to  occupy  all  the  space 
which  is  still  left  blank  upon  that  part  of  our  maps  by 
travellers,  his  area  of  habitation  would  even  then  be  very 
limited.  Thus,  the  higher  the  anthropoid  type,  the  more 
limited  the  area  of  habitation. 

If  we  consider  the  material  organism  alone,  the  human 
type  is  incontestably  superior  to  that  of  the  orang  or  gorilla. 
He  must  then  have  been  originally  localised  just  as  much 
as  these  animal  types.  It  will  perhaps  be  objected  that  the 
great  apes  are  gradually  disappearing,  and  that  the  few 
survivors  do  no  more  than  show  that  they  once  existed  in 
greater  numbers.  This  would  be  an  entirely  gratuitous 
hypothesis  having  no  foundation  in  facts,  and  we  shall  at 
least  be  permitted  to  reply,  that  the  gorilla  and  the  orang 
might  very  well  have  continued  to  exist  in  those  places 
where  the  chimpanzee  and  gibbon  are  still  living.  Now,  what 
are  the  areas  occupied  by  the  latter  compared  with  the 
human  area  ? 

VII.  I  have,  as  yet,  neglected  exceptional  types,  such  as 
the  marsupials,  the  edentata,  the  makis,  etc. ;  I  did  not  wish 
to  argue  from  aberrant  forms  ;  I  confined  mvself  to  demon- 


174  The  Human  Species. 

strating  the  laim  in  action  in  species  of  a  so-called  normal 
organisation.  Aberrant  types  have,  however,  a  very  high 
value,  and  furnish  us  with  further  instruction. 

'  These  types  almost  always  characterise  either  the  great 
centres  of  appearance,  or  the  secondary  centres  or  geo- 
graphical regions.  Not  to  mention  mammals,  I  must  remind 
my  readers  that  Australia  has  its  marsupials  ;  South  Aus- 
tralia, the  ornithorynchus ;  polar  America,  the  musk-ox ; 
central  America,  the  edentata  ;  Africa,  the  giraffe  ;  Asia,  tlie 
yak  ;  the  Cape,  the  gnu  ;  Madagascar,  the  makis  and  aye- 
aye  ;  the  Gaboon,  the  gorilla,  etc. 

Man,  also,  is  evidently  an  exceptional  or  aberrant  type 
among  mammals.  He,  alone,  is  constructed  for  a  vertical 
position;  he,  alone,  has  true  hands  and  feet;  he,  alone, 
exhibits  the  highest  degree  of  cerebral  development,  and 
possesses  that  superiority  of  intelligence  which  makes  him 
master  of  all  around  him. 

To  allow  that  the  human  type,  though  the  most  perfect  of 
all  types,  the  exceptional  genus  in  the  midst  of  all  others, 
has  come  into  existence  in  several  centres  of  appearance 
without  characterishig  any,  would  be  to  make  him  a  solitary 
exception. 

However  strong  may  be  our  polygenistic  tendencies,  and 
however  many  species  we  may  admit,  we  cannot  help  ac- 
knowledging that  the  original  localisation  of  the  human 
(jeiivM  in  a  single  centre  of  appearance  and  the  characterisa- 
tion of  this  centre  by  him  are  the  logical  consequence  of  all 
the  facts  attested  by  zoological  geography. 

"With  still  greater  reason  the  monogenists  will  consider  the 
privih'ged  species  which  predominates  over  all  others  as  one 
<jf  those  special  types  which  characterise  the  centre,  or  the 
n'gion  in  which  they  have  appeared,  as  the  ornithorynchus, 
the  aye-aye,  and  the  gnu  characterise  South  Austraha, 
Madagascar  and  the  Cape. 

Finally,  the  laws  of  zoological  geography  lead  us  to  consider 
the  human  species  as  unmistakably  characteristic  of  a  single 
centre    of  appearance.     Moreover,   they  justify  us    in  con- 


Centres  of  Appearance.  1 75 

eluding  that  this  centre  cannot  have  been  of  greater  extent 
tlian  that  of  the  gorilla  and  the  orang. 

VIII.  Is  it  possible  to  go  still  further  and  to  endeavour  to 
determine  the  geographical  position  of  the  human  centre  of 
appearance  ?  I  cannot  here  enter  into  the  details  of  this 
problem.  I  shall  confine  myself  to  determining  its  meaning, 
and  to  indicating  the  probable  solutions  of  it  from  the  data 
of  science  of  the  present  time. 

I  must  observe,  in  the  first  place,  that  in  considering  an 
animal  or  vegetable  species,  even  those  whose  area  is  most 
circumscribed,  no  one  thinks  of  trying  to  discover  the  precise 
spot  upon  which  it  may  have  first  appeared.  There  is 
always  something  very  vague  in  such  a  determination  and 
it  is  necessarily  approximative.  It  is  still  more  difficult 
when  the  species  in  question  is  of  universal  distribution. 
Within  these  limits  we  are  justified  in  at  least  forming 
conjectures  which,  as  such,  have  a  certain  amount  of  pro- 
bability. 

The  question  presents  very  different  aspects  according  as 
we  confine  ourselves  to  the  present  or  take  into  consideration 
the  geological  antiquity  of  man.  Nevertheless,  the  focts  are 
of  the  same  order  and  seem  to  indicate  two  extremes.  The 
truth  lies,  perhaps,  between  the  two. 

We  know  that  in  Asia  there  is  a  vast  region  bounded  on 
the  south  and  south-west  by  the  Himalayas,  on  the  west  by 
the  Bolor  mountains,  on  the  north-west  by  the  Ala-Tau,  on 
the  north  by  the  Altai  range  and  its  offshoots,  on  the  cast 
l)y  the  Kingkhan,  on  the  south  and  south-east  by  the  Felina 
and  Kucn-Loun.  Judging  from  the  present  state  of  things, 
this  great  central  region  might  be  regarded  as  having  con- 
tained the  cradle  of  the  human  species. 

In  fact,  the  three  fundamental  types  of  all  the  human 
races  are  represented  in  the  populations  grouped  round  this 
region.  The  black  races  are  the  furthest  removed  from  it, 
but  have,  nevertheless,  marine  stations,  where  we  find  them 
cither  pure  or  as  mixed  races,  from  the  Kioussiou  to  the 
Andaman  Islands.       Upon  the  continent   they  have    inter- 


176  The  Human  Species. 

mixed  with  almost  every  inferior  caste  and  class  of  the  two 
peninsulas  of  the  Ganges  ;  they  are  still  found  pure  in  both, 
ascend  as  higli  as  Nepaul,  and  extend  west  as  far  as  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  Lake  Zareh,  according  to  Elphinstone. 

The  yellow  race,  either  pure  or  in  places  mixed  with  white 
elements,  seems  to  be  the  only  one  which  occupies  the  space 
in  question  ;  it  peoples  all  the  north,  east,  south-east,  and 
west.  In  the  south  it  is  more  mixed,  but  forms,  neverthe- 
less, an  important  element  in  the  population. 

The  white  race,  from  its  allophylian  representatives,  seems 
to  have  disputed  the  central  area  itself  with  the  yellow  race. 
In  early  times,  we  find  the  Yu-tchi  and  tlie  Ou-soun  to  the 
north  of  the  Hoang-ho ;  and  in  the  present  day  cases  of 
white  populations  have  been  observed  in  Little  Thibet  and 
in  Eastern  Thibet.  The  Miao-Ts^  occupy  the  mountain 
region  of  China  ;  the  Siaputh  are  proof  against  all  attack  in 
the  gorges  of  the  Bolor.  Upon  the  confines  of  the  area  we 
meet  with  the  Ainos  and  the  Japanese  of  high  caste,  the 
Tinguianes  of  the  Pliillippine  Islands  ;  in  the  south  with  the 
Hindoos.  In  the  south-west  and  west  the  white  element, 
either  pure  or  mixed,  reigns  supreme. 

No  other  region  of  the  globe  presents  a  similar  union  of 
extreme  human  types  distributed  round  a  common  centre. 
This  fact,  alone  is  sufficient  to  suggest  to  the  mind  of  the 
naturalist  the  conjecture  which  I  have  expressed  above  ;  but 
we  may  appeal  to  other  considerations. 

One  of  the  most  important  is  drawn  from  philology.  The 
three  fundamental  forms  of  human  lanfjuase  are  found  in  the 
same  countries  and  under  similar  relations.  In  the  centre, 
and  south-east  of  our  area,  the  monosyllabic  languages  arc 
represented  by  those  of  China,  Cochinchina,  Siam  and  Thibet. 
As  agglutinative  languages,  we  find  in  the  north-east  and 
north-west  tlic  group  of  Uugro- Japanese,  in  the  south  that 
of  the  Dravidian  and  Malay,  and  in  the  west  the  Turkish 
languages.  Lastly,  Sanscrit  with  its  derivatives,  and  the 
Iranian  languages  represent  in  the  south  and  south-west  the 
inflectional  lanjruajres. 


Original  Localisation  of  Ulan.  177 

It  is  to  the  linguistic  types  gathered  round  the  central 
region  of  Asia  that  all  human  languages  must  be  referred  ; 
Avhether  from  their  vocabulary  or  their  grammar,  some  of 
these  Asiatic  languages  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  languages 
spoken  in  regions  often  very  distant,  or  separated  from  the 
area  in  question  by  entirely  different  languages.  We  know 
that  several  philologists,  M.  Maury  among  others,  establish 
an  intimate  connection  between  the  Dravidian  languao-es  and 
Australian  idioms,  and  that  M.  Picot  has  discovered  numbers 
of  Aryan  words  in  our  oldest  European  languao-es. 

Finally,  it  is  from  Asia  again  that  our  earliest  domesticated 
animals  are  derived.  Isidore  Geoffrey  is  entirely  agreed  with 
Dureau  de  la  Malic  upon  this  point. 

Thus,  the  present  epoch  alone  considered,  everything  points 
to  this  great  central  plateau,  or  rather  to  this  great  enclosure. 
There,  we  are  inclined  to  say,  the  first  human  beings  appeared 
and  multiplied  till  the  populations  overflowed  as  from  a  bowl 
and  spread  themselves  in  human  waves  in  every  direction. 

IX  Palseontological  studies  have,  however,  very  recently 
led  to  results  Avhich  are  capable  of  modifying  these  primary 
conclusions.  MM.  Heer  and  de  Saporta  have  informed  us 
that  iu  the  Tertiary  period  Siberia  and  Spitzbergen  were 
covered  with  plants,  indicating  a  temperate  climate.  MM. 
Murchison,  Keyserlink,  de  Verneuil,  and  d'Archiac  tell  us 
that,  during  the  same  period,  the  harven  lands  of  our  day 
supported  large  herbivorous  animals,  such  as  the  reindeer, 
the  mammoth,  and  the  tichorhine  rhinoceros.  All  these  ani- 
mals made  their  appearance  at  the  commencement  of  the 
Quaternary  period.  It  seems  to  me  that  they  did  not  come 
alone. 

I  have  said  above  that  the  discoveries  of  M.  I'abbe  Bour- 
geois testify,  in  my  opinion,  to  the  existence  of  a  tertiary 
man.  But  everything  seems  to  show  that  as  yet  his  repre- 
sentatives were  but  few  in  number.  The  Quaternary  popu- 
lations, on  the  contrary,  were,  at  least  in  distribution,  quite 
as  numerous  as  the  life  of  the  hunter  permitted.  Are  we 
justified  iu  imagining  that  during  the  Tertiary  period  man 


178  The  H^unan  Species. 

lived  in  polar  Asia  side  by  side  with  those  species  which  I 
have  just  mentioned,  and  that  he  supported  himself  by 
huntincr  them  as  he  afterwards  did  in  France  %  The  fall  of 
temperature  compelled  the  animals  to  migrate  southwards ; 
man  must  have  followed  them  to  find  a  milder  climate,  and 
to  be  within  reach  of  his  customary  game.  Their  simultaneous 
arrival  in  our  climates  and  the  apparently  sudden  multiplica- 
tion of  man  would  thus  be  easily  explained. 

The  centre  of  human  appearance  might  then  be  carried 
considerably  to  the  north  of  the  region  I  have  just  been 
discussing.  Perhaps  prehistoric  archajology  or  palaeontology 
will  some  day  confirm  or  confute  this  conjecture. 

However  this  may  be,  no  facts  have  as  yet  been  discovered 
which  authorise  us  to  place  the  cradle  of  the  human  race 
elsewhere  than  in  Asia.  There  are  none  which  lead  us  to 
seek  the  origin  of  man  in  hot  regions  either  of  existing  con- 
tinents, or  of  one  M'hich  has  disappeared.  This  view,  which 
has  been  frequently  expressed,  rests  entirely  upon  the  belief 
that  the  climate  of  the  globe  was  the  same  at  the  time  of 
the  appearance  of  man  as  it  is  now.  Modern  science  has 
tauffht  us  that  this  is  an  error.  From  that  time  there  is 
nothing  against  our  first  ancestors  having  found  favourable 
conditions  of  existence  in  northern  Asia,  which  is  indicated 
by  so  many  facts  borrowed  from  the  history  of  man,  and  from 
that  of  animals  and  plants. 


BOOK   V. 

PEOPLING    OF    THE    GLOBE. 


CHAPTER    XVL 


MIGRATIONS  BY  LAND.— EXODUS  OF  THE  KALMUCKS  FROM 
THE  VOLGA. 

L  At  the  point  which  we  have  now  reached,  the  connec- 
tion of  facts  and  of  their  consequences  proposes  a  fresh 
problem.  Physiology  has  proved  that  there  exists  but  one 
species  of  man,  of  which  the  human  groups  are  races.  Zoo- 
logical geography  has  taught  us  that  this  species  was  origi- 
nally localised  in  a  relatively  very  limited  space.  It*is 
now  met  with  everywhere,  because  it  has  spread  by  irradia- 
tion in  every  direction  from  this  centre.  The  peopling  of  the 
globe  by  migrations,  is  the  necessary  consequence  of  the 
preceding  facts. 

Polygenists,  and  the  partisans  of  the  autochthony  of  nations 
have  declared  that  these  migrations  are  impossible  in  a  certain 
number  of  cases,  and  have  brought  forward  this  pretended 
impossibility  as  an  objection  to  the  doctrine  which  I  uphold. 
Here,  again,  I  turn  to  facts  for  my  answer. 

II.  I  confess  that  I  never  understood  how  any  value  could 
be  attached  to  this  argument.  Migrations  are  almost  uni- 
versal in  history,  and  in  the  traditions  and  legends  of  the 
new  as  well  as  of  the  old  world.  We  find  them  among  the 
uncivilised  nations  of  our  time,  and  among  tribes  which  are 
still  lingering  in  the  lowest  stage  of  savage  life.     With  every 


i8o  The  Hwnan  Species. 

increase  and  extension  of  knowledge,  we  learn  to  appreciate 
better  the  wandering  instincts  of  man.  Human  pateonto- 
logy  and  prehistoric  archaeology  are  daily  adding  their  testi- 
mony to  that  of  the  historic  sciences. 

To  judge  from  this  kind  of  information  alone,  it  seems 
more  than  probable  that  the  entire  globe  was  peopled  by 
means  of  migrations  and  colonisations.  The  primordial  and 
uninterrupted  immobility  of  any  human  race  would  be  a  fact 
at  variance  with  all  analogy.  It  would,  once  constituted, 
doubtless  establish,  except  under  exceptional  circumstances, 
a  more  or  less  considerable  number,  generally  the  great 
majority  of  its  representatives  ;  but  in  the  course  of  ages  it 
could  not  fail  to  have  cast  off  swarms. 

HI.  The  supporters  of  autochthony  lay  especial  stress  upon 
two  orders  of  considerations,  the  one  drawn  from  the  social 
condition  of  nations  when  still  in  their  infancy  and  unpro- 
vided with  the  means  of  action  which  we  now  possess,  the 
other  from  the  obstacles  which  a  hitherto  invincible  nature 
would  oppose  to  their  movements. 

The  iirst  objection  evidently  rests  upon  an  imperfect  ap- 
preciation of  the  aptitudes  and  tendencies  developed  in  man 
through  his  different  modes  of  life.  The  very  imperfection 
of  the  .social  condition,  far  from  arresting  the  diffusion  of  the 
human  species,  must  rather  have  been  favourable  to  it. 
Agricultural  nations  are  of  necessity  settled  ;  to  pastoral 
nations,  less  bound  to  the  soil,  special  conditions  are  in- 
dispen.sable.  Hunters,  on  the  contrary,  by  reason  of  their 
mode  of  life,  of  the  necessities  which  it  imposes,  and  the 
instincts  which  it  develops,  cannot  but  spread  in  every  sense. 
A  vast  space  is  necessary  to  their  existence ;  as  soon  as  the 
numbers  increase,  even  in  a  slight  degree,  they  are  forced  to 
separate  or  to  destroy  each  other,  as  is  shown  so  clearly  in 
the  history  of  the  Red  Skins.  Nations  of  hunters  and  shep- 
herds are  then  alone  fitted  for  great  and  distant  migrations. 
Agricultural  nations  are  rather  colonists. 

Ancient  history  itself  entirely  confirms  these  theoretical 
inductions.     We  know  what  the  invadeis  of  the  Iloiuan  world 


Migrations  by  Land.  iSi 

wore,  the  destroyers  of  the  Eastern  Enipiie,  the  Arab  con- 
querors. The  case  was  the  same  in  Mexico.  Tlie  Chichimeqiii 
here  represent  the  Goths  and  Vandals  of  the  Old  World.  If 
Asia  has  so  often  overrun  Europe,  if  North  America  has  so 
often  sent  devastating  hordes  into  more  southern  regions,  it 
is  because  in  these  two  countries  man  was  still  in  a  barbarous 
or  savage  state. 

IV.  Were  natural  obstacles  indeed  insurmountable  to 
nations  destitute  of  our  perfected  means  of  locomotion  ? 
This  question  must  be  considered  from  two  points  of  view, 
as  the  migrations  in  question  are  by  land  or  sea. 

The  former  demands  but  little  attention.  The  weakness 
of  man,  and  the  strength  of  the  barriers  which  the  accidents 
of  land,  vegetation,  or  fauna  might  oppose  to  him,  have  un- 
questionably been  much  exaggerated.  Man  has  always  been 
able  to  vanquish  ferocious  animals,  the  rhinoceros  having 
formed  part  of  his  food  as  early  as  the  Quaternary  period. 
His  course  has  never  been  arrested  by  mountains,  even  when 
encumbered  by  everything  which  could  make  the  passage 
most  difficult.  Hannibal  crossed  the  Alps  with  his  elephants, 
and  Bonaparte  with  artillery.  The  progress  of  the  Asiatic 
hordes  was  no  more  stopped  by  the  Palus  Meotides  than  that 
of  Fernand  de  Soto  by  the  marshes  of  Florida.  Deserts  are 
daily  traversed  by  caravans;  and  as  to  rivers,  there  is  not  a 
savage  Avho  does  not  know  how  to  cross  them  upon  some 
raft  or  other. 

The  truth,  as  is  too  well  proved  by  the  history  of  travel,  is, 
that  man  alone  stops  man.  Where  the  latter  did  not  exist, 
there  was  nothing  to  oppose  the  progress  of  tribes  or  nations 
advancing  slowly  and  at  their  own  leisure,  outstripping  or 
passing  each  other  in  turn,  establishing  secondary  centres, 
from  which,  after  a  time,  fresh  migrations  would  take  place. 
Even  in  an  inhabited  country,  a  superior  invading  race  would 
not  act  otherwise.  It  was  thus  that  the  Aryans  conquered 
India,  that  the  Paouians  advanced,  who,  starting  from  a 
centre  still  unknown,  arrived  at  the  Gaboon  with  a  lino  of 
front  of  about  250  miles. 


i82  The  Human  Species. 

V.  I  might  dwell  upon  these  general  considerations,  but  it 
Avill  be  better  to  recall  briefly  a  fact  which,  though  of  recent 
date,  is  too  generally  forgotten,  and  which  shoAvs  how  an 
entire  population  can  effect  a  great  migration  although 
they  meet  with  obstacles  of  every  kind  over  a  great  tract  of 
country. 

About  the  year  1616  a  horde  of  Kalmucks,  impelled  by 
motives  wdth  which  we  are  unacquainted,  abandoned  the 
confines  of  China,  and  crossed  Asia  in  oixler  to  establish 
themselves  in  the  Khanate  of  Kazan,  upon  either  shore  of 
the  Volga.  They  placed  themselves  under  the  dominion  of 
Russia,  who  readily  received  the  new  colonists  and  respected 
their  patriarchal  government.  In  return,  the  Kalmucks 
proved  themselves  faithful  subjects,  and  on  several  occasions, 
furnished  the  Russian  army  with  numerous  and  valuable 
detachments  of  cavalry.  This  good  feeling  lasted  till  the 
time  of  the  Empress  Catherine,  when  she,  having  to  choose 
between  two  aspirants  named  Oubacha  and  Zebcck-Dorchi, 
nominated  the  former  to  the  government  of  the  horde.  The 
infuriated  Zebcck  determined,  in  revenge,  to  lead  his  fellow- 
countiymen  back  to  China.  Seconded  by  the  chief  Lama, 
he  even  persuaded  Oubacha  himself  to  join,  and  the  con- 
spiracy, though  it  included  the  entire  nation,  was  conducted 
with  such  secrecy  that  it  escaped  the  interested  vigilance  of 
Russia. 

On  Jan.  oth,  1771,  the  Kalmucks  might  have  been  seen 
assembling  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Volga.  Every  half  hour 
groups  of  women,  children,  and  aged  numbering  from  15,000 
to  20,000,  set  out  in  waggons  or  upon  camels,  escorted  by  a 
body  of  cavalry  10,000  strong.  A  rear-guard  of  80,000  picked 
men  covered  the  retreat  of  the  emigrants.  A  Russian  officer, 
who  was  detained  a  prisoner  for  part  of  the  journey,  and  has 
])reserved  these  details  for  us,  estimated  the  whole  assemblage 
at  more  than  600,000  souls. 

The  Kalmucks  felt  the  necessity  for  haste,  in  order  to 
cf-cape  the  attempts  which  would  assuredly  be  made  by 
Russia  to  detain   them.     In    seven  days  they  had    accom- 


Exod7is  of  the  Kalni7icks  from  iJie   Volga.      183 

plished  more  than  100  leagues,  with  the  weather  dry  but 
cold.  Many  of  the  cattle  had  succumbed,  and  the  want  of 
milk  was  beginning  to  be  felt,  even  for  the  children.  On 
arriving  at  the  banks  of  the  Djem,  they  met  with  their  first 
serious  disaster ;  an  entire  clan,  numbering  9000  horsemen, 
was  massacred  by  Cossacks. 

At  the  first  intelligence  of  this  flight,  however,  Catherine 
had  despatched  an  army  with  instructions  to  bring  back  the 
fugitives.  The  latter  had  to  pass,  at  a  distance  of  eighty 
leagues  from  the  Djem,  a  defile  which  must  be  taken  at  any 
price.  They  advanced  by  forced  marches.  Unfortunatel}' 
snow  set  in,  and  they  were  obliged  to  stop  for  ten  days.  On 
arriving  at  the  defile,  they  found  it  occupied  by  Cossacks, 
who  were  however  routed,  defeated,  and  massacred  by 
Zebeck. 

The  defile  was  passed,  but  they  were  forced  to  redouble 
their  speed,  for  the  Russian  army  was  upon  them.  They 
killed  and  salted  all  the  remaining  cattle,  and  left  behind 
every  incapable  woman  or  child,  and  all  their  aged  or  sick. 
The  winter  increased  in  severity,  and  though  they  burnt  all 
their  saddles  and  waggons,  every  encampment  was  marked 
by  hundreds  of  frozen  corpses.  At  length  the  spring  came 
to  alleviate  their  sufferings,  and  in  the  beginning  of  June, 
they  crossed  the  Torgai,  which  flows  into  Lake  Aksakal,  to 
the  N.N.E.  of  Lake  Aral.  In  five  months  the  emigrants  had 
accomplished  700  leagues ;  they  had  lost  more  than  250,000 
souls,  whilst  the  camels  alone  remained  of  all  their  animals. 
The  Russian  officer,  Weseloff,  who  was  shortly  after  set  at 
liberty,  wa.s  able  to  regain  the  Volga  with  no  other  guide 
than  that  of  the  trail  of  corpses  left  upon  the  route. 

The  unfortunate  fugitives  had  hoped  to  enjoy  a  rest  after 
having  crossed  the  Torgai.  But  the  Russian  army  still 
followed,  and  was  even  reinforced  by  terrible  auxiliarie.s,  the 
Bashkirs  and  Kirgliises,  hereditary  enemies  of  the  Kalmucks. 
This  light  cavalry  was  now  in  advance,  and  it  would  be 
necessary  to  fight  with  them  while  still  flying  from  the 
Russians.  They  were  also  obliged  to  skirt  the  desert,  where 
9 


184  The  Human  Species. 

they  would  have  perished  from  hunger,  and  to  cut  their  way- 
through  countries  where  the  inhabitants  rose  in  arms  to 
protect  their  temtories  against  the  famished  invaders. 
Winter  had  given  place  to  Summer ;  the  emigrants  suffered 
as  much  from  the  heat  as  they  had  done  from  the  cold,  so 
that  the  rate  of  mortality  was  unaltered. 

At  length,  in  the  month  of  September,  the  horde  reached 
the  frontiers  of  China.  For  many  days  they  had  had  no 
water.  At  the  sight  of  a  small  lake  tliey  all  rushed  forward 
to  quench  their  thirst ;  the  confusion  was  general,  when  the 
Bashkirs  and  Kirghises,  who  had  never  for  a  moment  ceased 
to  harass  the  fugitives,  threw  themselves  upon  the  infatuated 
crowd,  and  would,  in  all  probability,  have  annihilated  them. 
Fortunately,  the  Emperor  Kien-long  was  hunting  in  the 
neighbourhood,  accompanied,  as  usual,  by  a  small  army. 
Informed  of  the  arrival  of  the  Kalmucks,  he  had  recognised 
them  in  the  distance.  The  sound  of  his  artillery  restored 
the  courage  of  those  who  were  allowing  themselves  to  be 
massacred,  and  their  persecutors  suffered  a  bloody  defeat. 
It  should  be  added  that  Kien-long  distributed  amongst 
those  whom  he  had  saved,  the  lands  which  are  occupied  by 
their  descendants  at  the  present  time. 

The  exodus  of  the  Kalmucks  is  a  sufficient  answer  to 
every  argument  tliat  can  be  advanced  on  the  subject  of 
primitive  migration  by  land.  In  eight  months,  in  spite  of 
the  intense  extremes  of  cold  and  heat,  of  incessant  attacks 
from  implacable  enemies,  and  in  spite  of  hunger  and  thirst, 
this  nation  had  accomplished  a  distance  equal  in  a  straight 
line  to  one-eighth  of  the  circumference  of  the  earth.  If  we 
take  into  consideration  all  the  enforced  detours,  we  ought 
probably  to  double  the  amount.  With  such  facts  as  these, 
how  can  we  doubt  the  possibility  of  still  longer  expeditions 
for  a  tribe  advancing  peacefully  by  stages,  and  having  only 
to  contend  against  the  difficulties  presented  by  the  soil  or 
wild  beasts  \ 


CHAPTER   XyiL 

MIGRATIONS   BY   SEA. — POLYNESIAN   MIGRATIONS. — MIGRA- 
TIONS  TO   NEW   ZEALAND. 

I.  The  greater  number  of  the  defenders  of  autochthony 
allow  that  there  is  no  fundamental  impossibility  in  migration 
by  land,  but  maintain  that  it  is  different  in  migrations  by 
sea.  The  peopling  of  America,  and  especially  that  of  Poly- 
nesia, by  emigrants  from  our  great  continent,  is,  in  their 
opinion,  far  more  than  could  possibly  be  undertaken  or 
accomplished  by  nations  unacquainted  with  the  science  of 
astronomy,  and  the  improved  method  of  navigation.  Accord- 
ing to  them,  geographical  conditions,  winds  and  currents, 
must  oppose  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  any  enterprise  of 
this  nature. 

Starting  from  Polynesia,  let  us  see  how  much  truth  there 
is  in  these  assertions.  This  will  be  taking,  so  to  speak,  the 
bull  by  the  horns,  for  no  other  part  of  the  globe  seems  to 
justify  to  such  an  extent,  the  opinions  of  autochthonists. 

II.  Polynesia  is  not  quite  so  isolated  as  we  are  accustomed 
to  think.  A  study  of  the  map  alone  should  be  sufficient  to 
justify  us  in  holding  that  a  maritime  people,  accustomed  to 
the  navigation  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  might,  on  some 
occa.sion,  have  pushed  as  far  as  New  Guinea.  This  fact  is 
now  established  above  all  dispute.  Beyond  Ne^v  Guinea, 
the  Archipelago  of  New  Britain  and  the  Salomon  Islands 
would  put,  so  to  speak,  any  fairly  adventurous  navigators  on 
their  way  to  the  Fiji  Islands;  once  arrived  at  this  archipelago, 
however  little  they  may  have  been  impelled  by  the  spirit  of 
discovery,  they  must  easily  have  reached  Polynesia  properly 
so  called.     New  Zealand   to  the  south,  and  the   Sandwich 


1 86  The  Hnnian  Species. 

Islands  to  the  north,  remain,  however,  beyond  the  limits  of 
this  route,  as  it  is  pointed  out  by  geography. 

For  bold  mariners  to  be  stopped  in  their  advance,  winds 
and  currents  must  have  been  invariably  contrary  and  irre- 
sistible. The  stronger  the  belief  in  the  universality  and 
absolute  constancy  of  the  trade  winds  in  these  regions,  the 
more  was  this  action  atiributed  to  them.  But  the  investi- 
gations which  have  been  carried  on  in  the  interests  of 
science,  the  writings  of  Commander  Maury,  and  the  charts 
of  Captain  Kerhallet,  have  taught  us  that  the  vaiiable 
winds  due  to  the  cloud-ring  extend  over  almost  twenty 
degrees  in  the  maritime  area  in  question.  We  know,  more- 
over, that  every  year  the  monsoon  drives  back  the  trade 
winds  and  blows  beyond  the  Sandwich  and  Tahiti  Islands, 
so  that  instead  of  the  winds  being  contrary,  the}'-  are,  for 
many  months,  very  favrourable  for  ships  sailing  eastward. 

Considerations  drawn  from  currents  lead  almost  to  the 
same*  conclusions.  In  tlie  Pacific,  the  equatorial  current 
running  from  east  to  west  forms  in  reality  two  great 
distinct  oceanic  streams  separated  by  a  large  counter 
current  flowing  in  the  reverse  direction.  The  latter  skirts 
almost  the  whole  northern  portion  of  the  Polynesian  area ; 
it  thus,  as  it  were,  forms  the  outlet  from  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago. There  is  every  indication  of  its  having  played 
some  part  in  the  history  of  the  dispersion  of  races  in  all 
parts  of  Oceania  and  to  the  east  of  the  Malay  peninsula. 

Finally,  we  know  that  there  is  no  absolute  regularity  in 
the  atmospheric  phenomena  in  the  regions  of  the  Pacific, 
any  more  than  elsewhere.  This  ocean  has  in  common  with 
utliers  its  typhoons  and  its  tempests,  which  suddenly  change 
the  direction  of  the  winds  and  carry  sliips  before  them  in 
spite  of  currents.  Ishmds,  both  large  and  small,  with 
which  it  is  besot,  must  often  have  been  visited  by  sailors 
who  had  thus  lost  their  way,  of  which  we  shall  presently 
(juote  examples. 

Far  from  being  impossible,  the  peopling  of  Polynesia  by 
navigators  starting  from  the  Indian  Archipelago  is  relatively 


Migrations  by  Sea.  187 

easij  at  certain  times  of  the  year,  provided  only  that  the 
navigators  are  courageous  and  not  afraid  of  losing  sight  of 
land.  Now  Ave  know  the  character  of  the  Malay  popula- 
tions in  this  respect. 

Aofain,  those  Avho  have  taken  all  these  circumstances  into 
consideration,  Malte-Brun,  Homme,  Lesson,  Ricnzi,  Beechey, 
Wilkes  and  others,  have  not  hesitated  to  regard  Polynesia 
as  having  been  peopled  by  migrations  advancing  from  west 
to  east. 

HI.  Writers,  on  the  contrary,  who  have  only  consulted 
the  imperfect  knowledge  which  we  till  lately  possessed  of 
these  seas,  and  the  ordinary  direction  of  the  winds,  have 
either  believed  in  autochthony  or  have  invented  various 
theories  to  explain  the  presence  of  man  in  this  multitude  of 
islands  and  remote  islets. 

Ellis  held  that  the  Polynesians  had  been  conveyed  from 
America  to  Oceania  by  winds  and  currents,  but  this  hypo- 
thesis has  had  scarcely  any  adherents.  It  is  in  too  direct 
contradiction  with  all  the  physical,  philological,  and  .social 
characters,  which  refer  the  Polynesians  to  the  Malay  races 
as  strongly  as  they  separate  them  from  the  Americans. 

Dumont  d'Urville  has  proposed  a  theory  which,  at  first 
sight,  is  more  satisfactory,  and  still  has  a  few  supporters. 
In  his  opinion,  Polynesia  is  the  remains  of  a  great  continent 
which  was  originally  connected  with  Asia.  This  land  sank 
after  some  geological  revolutions ;  the  sea  covered  the 
plains  and  hills,  the  highest  summits  only  being  now 
visible  and  forming  the  present  archipelago.  The  Poly- 
nesians are  the  descendants  of  those  who  survived  the 
catastrophe. 

This  hypothesis  has  the  advantage  of  preserving  those 
relations  which  were  broken  by  that  of  Ellis.  And,  curious 
to  relate,  it  agrees  with  the  tradition  of  the  deluge  as 
preserved  by  the  Tahitians.  They  say  that  the  great  inun- 
dation happened  without  either  rain  or  tempest.  It  was 
the  sea  which  rose  and  covered  the  whole  earth  with  the 
exception  of  a  flat  rock  where  one  man  and  a  woman  took 


1 88  The  Human  Species. 

refuge.  We  might  say  that  there  Avas  nothing  in  this 
account  but  a  mistake  which  is  easily  understood.  The 
sea  never  rises,  but  the  land  may  sink,  and  other  people 
besides  the  Tahitians  have  been  deceived. 

Nevertheless,  we  cannot  accept  the  theory  of  Dumont 
d'Urville.  It  is  in  contradiction  to  the  zoological  facts  so 
thoroughly  investigated  by  Darwin  and  Dana.  If  some  of 
the  atolls  of  Oceania  shew  signs  of  subsidence,  a  great 
number  of  islands  offer  incontestable  proofs  of  upheaval, 
and  Tahiti  itself  is  one  of  the  latter. 

But  the  most  serious  argument  which  can  be  brought 
against  d'Urville  is  derived  from  the  inhabitants  themselves. 
If  travellers  agree  upon  one  point,  it  is  that  from  the 
Sandwich  Islands  to  New  Zealand,  from  the  Tonga  Islands 
to  Easter  Island,  all  the  Polynesians  belong  to  the  same 
race,  and  speak  the  same  language  with  mere  variations  of 
dialect. 

Now  the  Polynesian  area,  the  limits  of  which  I  have 
just  pointed  out,  is  of  greater  extent  than  the  whole  of 
A.sia.  What  would  an  Asiatic  Polynesia  be  like,  if  that 
continent  were  to  sink  beneath  the  waters  and  leave  only 
the  summits  of  its  mountains  visible,  where  some  repre-. 
sentatives  of  the  present  inhabitants  might  take  refuge  ? 
Is  it  not  at  once  evident  that  each  archipelago,  and  often 
each  island,  would  have  its  own  race  and  language  ? 

The  considerations  drawn  from  the  identity  of  popula- 
tions and  languages  in  Polynesia  are  of  themselves  sufficient 
to  justify  the  assertion  that  all  the  Islanders  have  a  common 
origin  ;  and  consequently,  that,  starting  from  some  unknown 
point,  they  have,  in  their  advance  from  archipelago  to  archi- 
pelago, peopled  by  degrees  the  maritime  world  in  which  we 
find  them. 

Horatio  Hale,  the  eminent  anthropologist  of  the  scientific 
expedition  of  the  United  States,  was  the  first  to  approach 
the  problem  from  a  general  point  of  view ;  he  solved  it  as 
far  as  he  was  able  with  the  data  collected  by  himself,  and 
sketched  the  first   chait  of  Polynesian  migrations.     Fresh 


Polynesian  Migrations.  189 

facts  have  been  obtained  since  that  time.  Sir  George  Grey 
has  published  the  liistorical  songs  of  the  Maories ;  Thomson, 
Shortiantl,  and  Hoclistetter  have  brought  to  light  fresh  tradi- 
tions ;  M,  Remy  published  a  history  of  Hawaii  arranged  by 
a  native.  M.  Gaussin  has  carried  off  the  prize  in  philology 
by  his  admirable  work  upon  the  Polynesian  language  ;  the 
Ddpot  of  the  French  Marine  has  received  special  documents 
from  Tahiti  to  which  General  Ribourt,  Admiral  Lavaud,  and 
Admiral  Bruat  have  added  the  results  of  their  own  re- 
searches. These  unpublished  materials  have  been  liberally 
placed  at  my  disposal,  and  I  have  added  to  them  some 
facts  which  have  been  forgotten.  I  have  thus  been  able  to 
confirm,  from  a  general  point  of  view,  the  conclusions  of 
Hale,  making,  however,  some  important  modifications,  and 
to  complete,  again  with  some  modifications,  his  chart  of 
migrations.  My  readers  will  understand  that  I  cannot  here 
enter  into  a  detailed  discussion,  and  I  must  beg  to  refer 
them  to  my  work  upon  The  Polynesians  and  their  Migra- 
tions. I  shall  confine  myself  to  a  short  summary  of  the 
results  which,  I  believe,  it  demonstrates. 

IV.  Both  physical  and  philological  characters  show  that 
the  Polynesians  are  a  branch  of  those  Malay  races  which 
are  divided  into  numerous  groups  by  shades  of  difference, 
sometimes  strongly  marked.  It  is  to  one  of  these  groups 
which  are  least  distant  from  the  white  type  that  the  nations 
in  question  must  be  referred. 

The  starting  point  of  these  migrations,  which  were  to 
extend  so  far  into  the  east,  was  Boeroe  Island,  which  is 
represented  in  all  maps  between  Celebes  and  Coram.  This 
conclusion,  already  proposed  with  some  diffidence  by  Hale, 
seems  to  me  to  be  placed  beyond  a  doubt  by  all  the  tradi- 
tions collected  at  Tonga  by  Mariner,  with  whose  work  the 
learned  American  seems  to  have  been  unacquainted. 

On  quitting  the  Malay  seas,  the  emigrants  must  have 
followed  as  nearly  as  possible  the  course  given  above. 
Repulsed  doubtless  by  the  black  races  which  then,  as  now, 
occupied  New  Guinea,  they  passed  Melanesia.    Some  canoes, 


IQO  The  Hwnan  Species. 

however,  probably  separated  from  the  others,  reached  the 
eastern  extremity  of  this  great  island,  and  there  founded  a 
colony  recently  discovered  by  Commander  Moresby.  It  is 
this  colony  which  has  doubtless  furnished  the  several  archi- 
pelagos of  Melanesia  with  at  least  a  part  of  the  Polynesian 
elements  which  have  been  observed  by  several  travellers. 
We  know,  however,  thanks  to  the  researches  of  M.  de 
Rochas,  that  the  Polynesian  elements  of  the  little  archi- 
pelago of  the  Loyalty  Islands  is  due  to  an  emigration 
passing  in  1770  from  the  Willis  Islands  to  New  Caledonia. 

The  great  stream  of  emigration  must  have  left  all 
]\Ielanesia  to  the  south,  and  have  separated  into  three 
branches.  One  would  arrive  at  the  Samoa  Islands,  another 
at  the  Tonga  Islands,  and  a  third  at  the  Fiji  Islands.  The 
two  first  archipelagos  were  evidently  uninhabited,  the  latter 
already  possessed  by  a  black  population.  An  alliance  was 
at  first  made,  however,  between  the  aborigines  and  the 
emigrants,  but  before  long  the  %mr  of  races  broke  out,  the 
Malays  were  expelled,  probably  leaving  behind  them  some 
of  their  women.  In  this  manner  the  mixed  character  of 
the  Fijian  population  was  produced,  with  which  all  travellers 
have  been  struck.  The  ejected  Malays  gained  the  Tonga 
Islands.  Finding  them  occupied  by  fellow-countrymen  they 
attacked  and  defeated  them.  Instead  of  massacring  or 
enslaving  them  they  invented  serfdom,  an  institution  which 
has  only  been  met  with  in  this  archipelago. 

Whilst  the  Malay  colonies  founded  in  the  Fiji  and 
Tonga  Islands  were  dispersed  and  desolated  by  a  fratricidal 
war,  those  in  the  Samoan  archipelago  prospered.  The 
population  became  denser :  the  spirit  of  adventure  was  not 
as  yet  extinguished,  fresh  emigrations  took  to  the  sea, 
advancing  in  the  direction  which  had  led  to  tbe  first 
discoveries.  At  this  period  the  island  of  Savai  played  an 
important  part,  according  to  the  universal  testimony  of 
Polynesian  traditions.  Its  name  appears  in  almost  all  the 
archipelagos,  scarcely  modified  by  local  dialects,  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands  and   in   New  Zealand,  in  the  Marquesa.s 


Polynesian  Aligratiojis.  191 

Islands  as  well  as  in  Tahiti,  and  as  far  as  the  Mauaia  Islands. 
Finally,  Tupaia,  in  drawing  tJie  curious  map,  which  has  been 
preserved  by  Forster,  designates  Savai"  as  the  mother  of  all 
the  others,  and  represents  it  as  much  larger  than  Tahiti. 
This  is  an  error,  but  this  very  error  proves  beyond  a  doubt 
the  importance  of  this  locality  from  our  present  point  of 
view. 

With  the  exception  of  a  single  emigration,  which  passed 
directly  from  Tonga  to  the  Marquesas  Islands,  it  is  from 
the  Samoan  archipelago,  and  from  Savai  in  particular,  that 
all  the  great  expeditions  appear  to  have  started,  which 
formed  secondary  centres  elsewhere.  Tahiti  and  the  Manaia 
Islands  are  the  two  principal.  The  former  peopled  the 
north  of  the  Pomotous  and  part  of  the  Marquesas,  which, 
in  turn,  sent  out  colonists  to  the  Sandwich  Islands,  where, 
however,  they  had  been  preceded  by  the  Tahitians.  The 
latter,  in  which  there  were  both  Tahitians  and  Samoans, 
pushed  their  colonies  as  far  as  Rapa,  to  the  Gambler  Islands, 
to  the  south-east  extremity  of  Polynesia  and  to  New  Zealand 
in  the  south-west. 

V.  We  have  only  isolated  and  very  incomplete  accounts  of 
the  greater  number  of  these  migrations.  Though  sufficient 
to  remove  all  doubt  as  to  the  fact,  they  tell  us  nothing  of 
the  circumstances  which  accompanied  or  followed  them.  It 
is  quite  otherwise  when  we  come  to  consider  New  Zealand. 
Thanks  to  the  songs  collected  by  Sir  George  Grey,  we  possess 
the  detailed  history  of  this  colonisation.  This  exception  is 
doubly  fortunate  as  giving  us  information  upon  a  number 
of  important  points,  and  precisely  in  reference  to  those 
islands  which,  from  being  situated  at  a  great  distance  from 
Polynesia,  properly  so  called,  f\ivour  autochthonic  hypotheses 
more  than  ail  the  rest  of  the  area.  It  seems  to  me,  there- 
fore, to  be  advisable  to  enter  into  a  few  details  upon  the 
subject. 

It  is  the  inhabitants  of  Rarotonga,  one  of  the  principal 
islands  of  Manaia,  who  had  the  honour  of  discovering  and 
colonising  New  Zealand.     An  emigration  from  Tonga  may, 


192  The  Htiman  Species. 

however,   at   some   unknown    period    have   possibly  joined' 
them. 

The  Christopher  Columbus  of  this  little  world  was  a 
certain  Ngahue,  who  was  compelled  to  fly  from  his  country 
to  escape  the  persecutions  of  a  queen,  who  wished  to  rob 
him  of  a  jasper  stone.  It  was  doubtless  chance  which  led 
him  to  New  Zealand.  He  here  discovered  several  pieces  of 
jasper,  which  probably  restored  him  to  the  favour  of  the 
female  chief,  for  we  do  not  hear  that  he  was  molested  on 
his  return  to  Rarotonga. 

During  the  absence  of  Ngahue  a  general  war  had  broken 
out  in  his  island.  The  vanquished  party  followed  the  advice 
of  the  traveller,  who  persuaded  them  to  go  and  occupy  the 
recently  discovered  land  with  him.  Several  chiefs  joined 
together  and  constructed  six  canoes,  the  names  of  which 
are  still  preserved.  The  song  translated  by  Sir  George 
Grey  informs  us  that  one  of  them,  the  Araiva,  was  made  of 
a  tree  which  had  been  felled  in  Rarotonga,  situated  on  the 
other  side  of  Hawaiki.  This  was  one  of  those  secondary 
Sava'is  which  I  have  mentioned  above,  and  the  place  from 
which  the  emigrants  started.  "Once,"  says  one  of  those 
songs  already  quoted,  "  our  ancestors  separated  ;  some  were 
left  at  Hawaiki,  and  others  came  here  in  canoes." 

The  same  song  describes  the  accidents  of  the  voyage,  the 
storms  which  the  navigators  met  with,  the  care  bestowed 
upon  the  first  culture  of  the  soil,  the  exploring  expeditions 
undertaken  in  the  new  country,  and  the  disagreements 
which  occurred  between  the  different  crews.  They  show  that 
the  connection  with  the  mother  country  continued  to  exiht 
for  some  time,  so  much  so  indeed  that  a  young  woman 
accomplished  the  voyage  with  only  a  few  companions,  and 
warlike  expeditions  started  sometimes  from  Hawaiki  and 
sometimes  from  the  colony  to  avenge  some  of  those  outrages 
which  were  considered  by  these  races  as  demanding  the  life 
of  the  offender. 

There    is   nothing  'astonishing    in    these   passages.      The 
Polynesians  knew  perfectly  well  how  to  direct  their  course 


Polynesian  Migrations.  193 

at  sea  by  the  stars,  and  the  route  from  one  point  to  another 
once  observed  was  inscribed,  if  we  may  use  the  expression, 
in  a  song  which  would  never  be  forgotten.  They  had  a  very 
correct  general  idea  of  the  whole  of  their  maritime  world. 
The  map  drawn  by  Tupaia,  which  I  have  reproduced  in  my 
book,  is  equal  to  those  of  our  savants  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
while  it  embraces  a  considerable  area.  Tupaia  had  seen  for 
himself  several  of  the  islands  which  he  represents.  Accord- 
ing to  the  calculations  of  Cook,  he  must  have  gone  westward 
to  a  distance  of  1,000  miles.  But  it  was  from  the  sacred 
songs  of  his  country  tliat  he  acquired  his  knowledge  of  the 
rest  of  Polynesia,  and  was  able  to  sketch  it  with  tolerable 
accuracy. 

As  to  the  canoes  in  question,  they  were  the  same  as  the 
pirogues,  which  are  mentioned  by  all  travellers  with  admira- 
tion, and  are  declared  by  Cook  to  be  very  suitable  for  long 
voyages.  This  is  a  fact  which  is  often  established  by  the 
very  precise  details  contained  in  some  of  the  songs  translated 
by  Sir  George  Grey.  We  see,  for  example,  one  of  the 
emigrant  chiefs,  Ngatoro-i-Rangi,  "  mount  upon  the  roof  of 
the  hut  constructed  upon  the  platform  which  joined  the  two 
canoes."  We  have  only  to  add  that  the  Araiva  and  other 
similar  vessels  generally  carried  1-10  warriors,  and  it  will  at 
once  appear  how  devoid  of  foundation  are  the  assertions  of 
those  writers  who  declare  these  voyages  to  have  been  im- 
po.ssible  for  want  of  suflficient  means  of  transport. 

VI.  The  various  documents  which  we  now  possess  have 
not  only  been  of  service  in  proving  beyond  a  doubt  the 
general  fact  of  migrations,  and  in  acquainting  us  with  the  cir- 
cumstances by  which  some  of  them  were  accompanied  ;  they 
even  enable  us  to  indicate  with  very  tolerable  exactness  the 
date  of  some  of  the  most  important. 

Thi.s  result  is  generally  obtained  by  the  genealogies  of  the 
principal  fiimilies.  Each  forms  a  kind  of  litany,  which  is 
sung  in  fixed  rhythm,  and  of  which  each  verse  contains  the 
name  of  a  chief  and  those  of  his  wifie  and  son.  Anyone, 
therefore,  capable  of  remembering  a  song  of  one  hundred 


194  '^^^^'  Human  Species. 

verses  may  easily  learn  the  longest  of  these  genealogies. 
Confided  to  memory  by  the  Arejyos  or  Keepers  of  the 
Arcldves,  they  were  preserved  with  jealous  care.  Thomson 
informs  us  that  in  New  Zealand  a  serious  inquiry  was  made 
into  these  verbal  documents,  and  their  authenticity  was  so 
well  established,  that  they  have  an  equal  value  in  matters  of 
justice  with  our  deeds. 

Now,  in  the  Marquesas,  Gattanewa,  the  friend  of  Porter, 
who  was  descended  from  the  first  colonists  of  the  Tongan 
portion  of  the  archipelago,  had  only  eighty-eight  predecessors. 
At  Hawai,  the  genealogy  of  the  Tamehameha,  according  to 
M.  Remy,  is  contained  in  seventy-five  verses.  In  1840, 
according  to  Williams,  Rarotonga  was  governed  by  the  twenty- 
ninth  descendant  of  Karika,  the  founder  of  the  colony.  In  the 
Gambler  Islands  M.  Maigret  saw  the  twenty-seventh  reigning 
chief  since  the  arrival  of  the  first  colonists  from  Rarotonga. 

Hale  has  shown  very  clearly  that  the  Hawaian  genealogy 
contains  at  the  outset,  like  many  others  in  Europe,  some 
fabulous  personages.  He  considered  it  necessary  to  remove 
the  first  twenty-two  verses.  Some  such  correction  should 
very  probably  be  made  in  that  of  the  Marquesas  Islanders. 
As  to  those  of  Rarotonga  and  the  Gambler  Islands  they  are 
too  recent  to  have  been  already  contaminated  by  fable. 

Hale,  guided  by  considerations  which  I  cannot  here  dis- 
cuss, attributes  to  each  verse  of  these  genealogies  the  value 
of  a  fjeneration,  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  years.  Thomson 
and  M.  Rem}--,  however,  having  had  time  to  gather  more 
precise  information,  regard  them  as  indicating  merely  reigns. 
Calculating  the  mean  duration  of  these  reigns  from  that  given 
by  the  list  of  French  kings  from  Clovis  to  Louis  XVII.,  we 
obtain  as  a  result  21*13  years. 

According  to  those  data,  the  arrival  of  the  Tongans  iu  the 
Marquesas  Islands  must  have  taken  place  in  the  year  417  of 
our  era  ;  that  of  the  Tahitans  in  about  701  ;  Karika  must 
have  colonized  Rarotonga  in  1207,  and  the  Gambicr  Islands 
have  been  peopled  in-1270. 

For  New  Zealand  we  have  a  double  source  of  information, 


Polynesian  Migrations.  195 

.'ind  the  results  thus  obtained  agree  so  well  that  we  cannot 
doubt  their  accuracy.  The  genealogies  of  the  greater  number 
of  the  Maori  chiefs  go  back  as  far  as  those  bold  pioneers 
whose  history  I  have  related.  Thomson,  who  has  examined 
several,  considers  that  the  number  of  chiefs  who  have 
succeeded  each  other  in  every  family  since  the  colonization, 
may  be  estimated  at  about  twenty.  Taking  the  kings  of 
England  as  a  term  of  comparison,  he  attributes  to  the  rthjn 
of  each  cJdef  a  duration  of  22Vt  years.  These  data  took 
him  back  to  the  year  1419.  The  list  of  French  kings  would 
only  give  the  year  14o7. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  one  of  the  songs  preserved  by  Sir 
George  Grey,  there  is  an  account  of  the  history  of  the  son  of 
Hotunui,  one  of  the  colonizing  chiefs  of  New  Zealand,  and  of 
his  immediate  descendants.  At  the  fourth  generation  a 
daughter  was  born,  "from  whom,"  the  legend  adds,  "are 
descended  in  eleven  generations  all  the  principal  chiefs  now 
living  of  the  tribe  of  Ngalipaoa."  Taking  thirty  years  for 
each  generation,  we  find  that  the  migration  of  Hotunui  took 
place  4o0  years  before  tlie  time  when  Sir  George  Grey  re- 
ceived the  document  (about  1850),  which  carries  us  back  to 
the  year  1400. 

Thus,  these  Maories,  whom  autochthonists  regard  as 
children  of  the  soil,  cannot  have  hmded  in  New  Zealand 
earlier  than  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

VII.  I  have  hitherto  only  spoken  of  more  or  less  voluntary 
migrations,  such  as  might  be  induced  by  a  spirit  of  adventure, 
civil  troubles,  or  the  authority  of  a  priest  despatching  an 
excess  of  population  in  search  of  new  countries.  But  in 
treating  of  Polynesia,  we  must,  as  I  have  already  remarked, 
take  accidents  by  sea  into  consideration.  Several  examples 
are  known.  It  was  in  this  manner  that  Toubouai  was 
peopled,  which  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  within  an 
interval  of  a  few  years,  received  three  canoes  from  different 
islands,  one  of  which  was  Tahiti.  All  three  had  been  carried 
away  by  a  storm  and  driven  ashore  upon  this  island,  which, 
till  then,  had  been  uninhabited. 


196  The  Httman  Species. 

Such,  again,  is  the  history  of  the  chief  Touwari  and  his 
companions,  men,  women,  and  children,  discovered  by  Cap- 
tain Beechey  upon  Byam- Martin  Island,  which  they  had 
begun  to  colonize.  Tliey  had  started  from  Anaa,  an  island 
situated  two  hundred  and  forty-five  miles  to  the  east  of 
Tahiti,  to  go  and  pay  homage  to  Pomare,  but  were  surprised 
at  Maiatea  by  tUe,  monsoon,  ivhich  had  come  sooner  than 
usual.  Driven  to  the  south-east  into  the  midst  of  the 
Pomatou  Islands,  they  landed  at  first  on  Barrow  Island. 
Finding,  however,  no  means  of  subsistence,  they  took  to  the 
sea  again,  and  fell  in  with  the  island  where  they  were  found 
by  the  English  navigator. 

This  example  is  perfect,  since  it  realises  all  the  circum- 
stances indicated  by  the  theory.  It  establishes  the  existence 
of  regular  relations  between  islands  situated  at  great 
distances  from  each  other  ;  it  proves  one  of  those  occurrences 
which  must  more  than  once  have  caused  these  bold  naviga- 
tors to  wander  from  the  usual  route  ;  it  shows  how  a 
remote  island  was  able  to  receive  all  the  elements  of  a 
colony ;  it  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the  possibility  of  dispersion 
going  on  in  an  exactly  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  trade 
Avinds.  We  need  only  add  that  the  passage  from  Maiatea  to 
Barrow  and  Byam-Martin  Islands  is  more  than  five  hundred 
and  sixty  miles,  and  we  shall  understand  without  any 
difficulty  how  Polynesia  was  peopled  by  voluntary  or 
accidental  colonization. 

VII I.  There  is  one  more  circumstance  which  it  is  impor- 
tant to  observe,  and  which  is  completely  at  variance  with  all 
autochthonist  hypotheses,  that,  namely,  on  approaching  the 
islands  where  they  have  been  discovered  by  us,  the  Polyne- 
sian found  them  vuiinhabitcd. 

Tlie  songs,  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  Sir  George  Grey, 
show  that  in  New  Zealand  the  greater  number  of  the  first 
emigrants  met  with  no  traces  of  a  previous  population.  One 
only,  named  Manaia,  found  upon  a  promontory  aborigines 
of  the  country.  This  exception,  from  the  very  reason  that 
it   is    unique,  proves  that   this   population   could   not   have 


Polynesian  Migrations.  197 

been  very  numerous.  It  has  slightly  altered  the  type  of 
the  lowest  grades  of  the  Maories,  to  which  it  has  been 
confined.  The  portrait  published  by  Hamilton  Smith,  and 
one  of  the  skulls  in  the  possession  of  the  Museum,  inform 
us  that  these  supposed  aborigines  were  Papuans.  It  is 
evident  that  they  had  reached  New  Zealand  in  consequence 
of  some  mischance  similar  to  those  I  have  just  mentioned, 
and  had  not  even  had  time  to  multiply  sufficiently  to  occupy 
the  entire  shores  of  the  North  Island. 

The  traditions  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  furnish  us  with  a 
fact  of  the  same  nature.  They  tell  us  that  the  first  colonists 
coming  from  Tahiti  found  in  these  islands  cjods  and  »j)iv'itii, 
who  inhabited  the  caves  and  with  whom  they  entered  into 
alliance.  It?  is  evident  that  Ave  have  here  a  troglodyte  people, 
whose  importance  the  legend  has  been  pleased  to  exaggerate, 
and  whose  origin  it  is  not  difficult  to  find.  If  Kadou,  whose 
history  has  been  preserved  by  Kotzebue,  instead  of  leaving 
the  Caroline  Islands  for  the  Radak  Islands,  had  started  from 
the  latter,  and  if  he  had  made  almost  the  same  passage  in 
the  same  direction,  he  Avould  have  landed  in  the  Sandwich 
Islands. 

The  mixture  of  Polynesian  and  Micronesian  races  at  once 
explains  the  darkness  of  colour  and  Avant  of  purity  in  the 
features  of  the  HaAvaians.  Perhaps  the  same  cause  may 
account  for  the  difference  in  features,  manners,  and  industry 
Avhich  is  presented  by  some  tribes  of  the  Loav  Archipelago. 

Apart  from  these  few  and,  as  Ave  see,  very  feeble  exceptions, 
all  the  i.slands  of  Polynesia  appear  to  have  been  uninhabited 
when  the  navigators  from  Boeroe  or  their  descendants  landed. 
This  fact  is  distinctly  proved  by  traditions  in  Kingsmill, 
Rarotonga,  MangarcAva,  the  Toubouai  Islands,  etc.  Purity 
of  race  testifies  that  this  AA'as  also  the  case  Avith  the  Tonga, 
Samoa,  and  Marquesas  Islands. 

IX.  Finally,  the  facts  to  Avhich  I  have  been  obliged  to 
confine  myself  are  entirely  opposed  to  the  theories  of  autoch- 
thonists,  and  lead  to  the  foUoAving  conclusions  :  Polynesia,  a 
region  Avhich,  from   its  geographical  conditions,  seems  at  first 


198  The  Human  Species. 

sight  to  be  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  Avorld,  has  been 
peopled  by  means  of  voluntary  migrations  and  accidental  dis- 
persion, passing  from  west  to  east,  at  least  as  a  general  rule. 
The  Polynesians,  coming  from  Malaya,  and  the  Isle  of 
Boeroe  in  particular,  first  established  and  settled  themselves 
in  the  Archipelagos  of  Samoa  and  Tonga.  Thence  they  in- 
vaded by  degrees  the  maritime  world  open  before  them;  they 
found,  almost  without  an  exception,  that  all  the  countries 
where  they  landed  were  uninhabited,  and  only  on  two  or 
three  occasions  met  with  very  small  tribes  of  a  more  or  less 
black  type. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

MIGRATIONS  BY   SEA. — MIGRATIONS   IN  AMERICA. 

I.  The  peopling  of  Polynesia  and  America  is  a  problem 
■which  presents,  if  I  may  use  the  expression,  inverse  condi- 
tions. There  is,  in  reality,  no  geographical  difficulty  in  the 
latter.  The  proximity  of  the  two  continents  at  Behring  Straits, 
the  existence  in  this  channel  of  the  Saint  Laurence  islands, 
the  largest  of  which  is  situated  exactly  half-way  between  the 
two  opposite  continents,  the  connection  formed  between 
Kamschatka  and  the  peninsula  of  Alaska  by  the  Aleutian 
Islands;  the  maritime  habits  of  all  these  peoples;  the  presence 
of  the  Tchukchees  on  the  two  opposite  shores ;  the  voyages 
which  they  undertake  from  one  continent  to  the  other  on 
simple  matters  of  commerce,  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  facility 
with  which  the  Asiatic  races  could  pass  into  North  America 
through  the  Polar  Regions, 

More  to  the  south,  the  current  of  Tessan,  the  Jcouro-sivo, 
or  black  stream  of  the  Japanese,  opens  a  great  route  for 
navigators.  This  current  has  frequently  cast  floating  bodies 
and  abandoned  junks  upon  the  shores  of  California.  Instances 
of  this  fact  have  been  observed  in  our  own  time.  It  is  im- 
possible that  they  should  not  also  have  happened  before  the 
period  of  European  discoveries.  Asiatic  maritime  nations 
must  at  all  times  have  been  carried  to  America  from  all  those 
places  which  are  washed  by  the  Black  Stream. 

The  Equatorial  current  of  the  Atlantic  opens  a  similar 
route  leading  from  Africa  to  America,  and  there  are  some 
evidences,  rare  it  is  true,  showing  that  wrecks  have  been 
carried  in  this  direction.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  that  the 
same  may  also  have  happened  to  man. 


200  The  Human  Species. 

II.  We  shall  not,  therefore,  be  surprised  at  finding  in  the  New 
World  representatives  of  races  which  seem  to  belong  originally 
to  the  Old  World ;  we  shall  easily  understand  the  multiplicity 
of  American  races,  which  is  perhaps  still  contested  bj'  some 
of  Morton's  followers,  but  firmly  established  in  the  opinion  of 
every  unprejudiced  person  by  the  testimony  of  Humboldt  and 
d'Orbigny's  classical  work  on  L'Homme  Americain. 

Black  populations  have  been  found  in  America  in  very 
small  numbers  only,  and  as  isolated  tribes  in  the  midst  of 
very  different  nations.  Such  are  the  Charruas  of  Brazil,  the 
black  Carabees  of  Saint  Vincent  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the 
Jamassi  of  Florida,  the  dark-complexioned  Californians,  who 
are,  perhaps,  the  dark  men  mentioned  in  Quiche  traditions, 
and  by  some  old  Spanish  adventurers. 

Such,  again,  is  the  tribe  of  which  Balbao  saw  some  repre- 
sentatives in  his  passage  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  in  1513. 
Yet  it  would  seem,  from  the  expressions  made  use  of  by 
Gomara,  that  these  were  true  Negroes.  This  type  was  well 
known  to  the  Spaniards,  and  if  they  had  encountered  black 
men  with  glossy  hair,  like  the  Charruas,  they  would  un- 
doubtedly have  been  much  impressed  by  it,  and  would  have 
mentioned  the  fact. 

The  white  type  is  more  widely  represented  in  America 
than  the  black.  Along  the  whole  of  the  north-west  coast, 
Meares,  Marchand,  La  Perouse,  Dixon  and  Maurelle  have 
observed  populations,  which,  judging  from  some  of  their  des- 
criptions, would  seem  to  be  of  pure  white  race.  Upon  the 
Upper  Missouri,  the  Kiawas,  Kaskaias  and  the  Lee  Panis 
possess,  we  are  assured,  the  attributes  of  the  purest  white 
races,  including  their  fair  hair.  The  Mandans  have,  from  our 
present  point  of  view,  always  attracted  attention.  Captain 
Graa,  again,  found  in  Greenland  men  speaking  Esquimau, 
but  tall,  thin,  and  fair.  In  South  America,  Ferdinand 
Columbus,  in  his  relation  of  his  father's  voyages,  compares 
the  inhabitants  of  Guanaani  to  the  Canary  Islanders,  and 
describes  tlie  inhabitants  of  San  Domingo  as  still  more 
beautiful  and    fair.     In    Peru,    the  Chaiazanis,    studied  by 


Mis^ralions  in  Amci'ica.  201 


•<b 


M.  Angrand,  also  resemble  the  Canary  Islanders,  and  differ 
from, all  the  surrounding  tribes.  L'Abbe  Brasseur  de  Bour- 
bourg  imagined  himself  surrounded  by  Arabs  when  all  his 
Indians  of  llabinal  -were  around  him,  for  they  had,  he  says, 
their  complexion,  features,  ^nd  beard.  Finally,  Gomara  and 
Pieri-e  Martyr  offer  a  similar  testimony,  and  the  latter 
speaks  of  the  Indians  of  the  Parian  Gulf  as  having  fair  hair 
{cajdllis  jUivib). 

It  is  useless  to  insist  upon  the  anthropological  relations 
between  America  and  Asia.  Most  travellers  have  insisted 
upon  this  point.  I  have  heard  M.  de  Castelnau  say,  "  When 
I  was  surrounded  by  my  Siamese  servants,  I  imagined  myself 
in  America;"  and  M.  Vavasseur,  assisting  at  the  visit  of  the 
Siamese  ambassadors,  remarked,  "But  those  are  my  Boto- 
cudos."  I  should,  however,  observe  that  the  skull  in  the 
Collection  in  the  Paris  Museum  indicates  less  resemblance 
than  the  external  characters. 

America  has,  moreover,  its  distinct  races  with  which  the 
foreign  elements  have  more  or  less  bleiided.  She  has  also 
had  her  quaternary  man.  This  is  a  fact  which  must  not  be 
overlooked,  and  by  which  the  problem  is  singularly  compli- 
cated. We  shall  presently  see  that  geological  revolutions  do 
not  involve  the  disappearance  of  existing  human  races.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  in  America  there  are  descendants  of 
men  who  were  contemporary  with  the  mastodon,  just  as,  in 
Europe,  we  find  the  descendants  of  those  who  were  contem- 
poraries of  the  mammoth.  Unfortunately  our  knowledge  of 
the  physical  characters  of  the  American  fossil  man  is  as  yet 
very  slight. 

Ill,  It  does  not,  however,  seem  to  me  the  less  probable 
that  the  most  pronounced  ethnological  elements,  such  as 
White,  Yellow,  and  Black,  which  we  encounter  at  the  present 
time,  have  overspread  this  continent  by  means  of  migration. 
This  fact  is  proved  by  history  in  a  certain  number  of  cases  ; 
and  some  very  simple  considerations  seem  to  me  to  render 
others  no  less  probable. 

For  example,  we  only  find  black  men  in  America  in  those 


202  The  Hiivian  Species. 

places  which  are  washed  by  either  the  Koiiro-sivo,  or  the  Equa- 
torial Current  of  the  Atlantic  or  its  divisions.  A  glance  at  the 
maps  of  Captain  Kerhallet  will  at  once  show  us  the  rarity 
and  the  distribution  of  these  tribes.  It  is  evident  that  the 
more  or  less  pure  black  elements  have  been  brought  from 
the  Asiatic  Archipelagos  and  from  Africa  through  some 
accident  at  sea ;  they  have  there  mixed  with  the  local  races, 
and  have  formed  those  small  isolated  groups  which  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  colour  from  the  surrounding  tribes. 

The  presence  of  Semitic  types  in  America,  certain  tradi- 
tions of  Guiana,  and  the  use  in  this  country  of  a  weapon 
entirely  characteristic  of  the  ancient  Canary  Islanders,  can 
be  easily  explained  in  the  same  manner,  and  the  explanation 
rests  upon  positive  facts.  Twice  during  the  last  century,  in 
1731  and  1764,  small  ships  passing  from  one  point  of  the 
Canary  Islands  to  another  have  been  driven  by  storms  into 
the  region  of  the  trade  winds  and  equatorial  current,  and 
have  drifted  as  far  as  America.  What  has  happened  in  our 
time  must  often  have  happened  before.  We  cannot  then  be 
surprised  at  finding  upon  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
tribes  which  are  more  or  less  related  to  the  African  Whites 
by  their  physical  characters. 

IV.  The  geographical  position  of  the  continents  at  once 
explains  why  the  yellow  type  has  so  many  representatives  in 
America.  Supposing,  which  seems  to  be  contradicted  by 
some  evidences,  that  the  coast-lines  have  not  altered  since 
the  latest  geological  era,  the  facilities  presented  by  the 
passage  are  quite  sufficient,  and  the  Asiatic  races  have 
profited  by  them  to  a  considerable  extent.  America  was 
known  to  them  long  before  Europeans  possessed  anything 
beyond  legends  on  this  subject,  the  meaning  of  which  is  still 
hotly  disputed. 

It  is  to  De  Guigncs  that  we  owe  the  discovery  of  this  fact, 
the  importance  of  which  is  evident.  He  revealed  to  Europe 
what  he  had  learnt  in  Cliincse  books.  Tlicse  books  speak  of 
a  country  called  Fou-Sang,  situated  at  a  distance,  to  the 
east  of  Cliina  far  boyond  the  limits  of  Asia.     De  Guignes 


Migrations  in  America.  203 

(lid  not  hesitate  to  identify  it  with  America.  To  the  proofs 
drawn  from  the  Chinese  books,  he  added  some  isolated  and 
hitherto  forgotten  facts  which  were  borrowed  from  Europeans, 
from  George  Home,  Gomara,  etc. 

The  work  of  the  French  Orientalist  was  received  with  a 
very  singular,  yet  accountable  repugnance.  Apart  from  the 
mistrust  excited  by  every  unexpected  discovery,  many  people 
were  annoyed  to  find  that  Europeans  had  been  preceded  by 
Asiatics  in  the  New  World ;  it  seemed  to  them  to  be  de- 
throning Christopher  Columbus.  A  Prussian,  who  had 
become  a  naturalized  Frenchman,  gave  the  support  of  his 
great  learning  to  all  who  required  no  more  than  the  contra- 
diction of  the  fact,  and  it  was  almost  unanimously  agreed 
that  De  Guignes  had  deceived  himself.  More  justice  is 
now  done  to  him,  and  anyone  who  will  study  the  question 
in  an  unprejudiced  spirit,  cannot  but  acknowledge  that  he 
is  right. 

Klaproth  held  that  Fou-Sang  was  nothing  else  than 
Japan.  He  forgot  that  the  country  of  which  the  Chinese 
writers  spoke  contained  copper,  gold  and  silver,  but  no 
iron.  This  characteristic,  which  is  inapplicable  to  Japan, 
agrees,  on  the  contrary,  in  every  respect  with  America.  To 
support  his  assertion^  he  maintained  that  the  Chinese  could 
neither  recognize  their  direction  nor  measure  distances  in 
their  voyages  with  precision.  He  forgot  that  they  were 
acquainted  with  the  compass  2000  years  before  our  era,  and 
that  they  possessed  maps  far  superior  to  the  vague  conjec- 
tures of  the  Middle  Ages, 

As  to  the  supposed  error  in  distance  of  which  Klaproth 
speaks,  there  was  no  such  thing.  Paravey  informs  us  that 
Fou-Sang  was  placed  at  a  distance  of  20,000  Li  from  China. 
Now  a  Li,  according  to  M.  Pothier,  is  equal  to  4440  metres 
(•iSG  yards).  In  following  the  course  of  the  Kouro-Sivo, 
these  numbers  would  exactly  bring  us  to  California,  where 
the  abandoned  junks  were  stranded  ;  they  prove  what  was 
indicated  by  the  theory,  that  this  current  had  been  the  route 
for  voyages  to  and  from  America. 


204  The  Human  Species. 

Paravcy  has  published  a  facsimile  of  a  Chinese  drawing 
representing  a  lama.  This  at  once  answers  one  of  the  objec- 
tions of  Kiaproth,  and  carries  us  considerably  to  the  south 
of  California.  Amongst  the  productions  of  Fou-Sang  the 
Chinese  authors  mention  the  horse,  which,  as  we  know,  did 
not  exist  in  America.  It  is  clear  that  they  called  by  this 
name  the  animal  which  in  Peru  was  used  as  a  beast  of 
burden.  This  habit  of  calling  by  a  common  name  species 
which  are  known  and  new  species  which  resemble  them  in 
certain  respects,  certainly  existed  elsewhere  than  in  China. 
This  habit  led  the  Conquestadores  to  call  the  puma  a  lion, 
and  the  bison  a  coiv. 

But  did  the  Chinese  then  extend  their  voyages  as  far  as 
Peru  ?  This  can  hardly  be  doubted  after  the  preceding  testi- 
mony, and  after  that  which  is  contained  in  the  Geograjia 
del  Peru  by  Paz  Soldan.  The  following  is  the  translation 
of  a  passage  for  which  I  am  indebted  to  M.  Pinart :  "  The 
inhabitants  of  the  village  of  Eten  in  the  province  of  Lam- 
baydque,  and  the  department  of  Libertad,  seem  to  belong 
to  a  different  race  from  those  of  the  surrounding  countries. 
They  live,  and  intermarry,  only  amongst  themselves,  and 
speak  a  language  which  is  perfectly  understood  by  the 
Chinese,  who  have  been  brought  to  Peru  during  the  last 
few  years." 

The  Chinese  books  studied  by  De  Guigncs  and  Paravey 
speak  of  religious  missions,  which,  towards  the  close  of  the 
fifth  century,  left  the  country  of  Ki-Pin  to  carry  to  Fou- 
Sang  the  doctrines  of  Buddha.  The  researches  of  M.  G. 
d'Fichthal  have  fully  confirmed  these  accounts.  The  strong- 
est resemblances  have  been  pointed  out  between  the  monu- 
ments and  the  Buddhist  figures  of  Asia  and  the  same 
products  of  American  art.  The  comparison  of  legends  has 
led  the  author  to  the  same  result. 

Finally,  according  to  an  encyclopaidia,  from  which  M.  de 
Risny  has  translated  a  passage,  the  Japanese  were  acquainted 
with  Fou-Sang,  which  they  called  Fou-So,  and  with  the 
missions  which  had  left  the  land   Ki-Pin  for  that  country. 


Migrations  in  America.  205 

Although  its  real  position  must  still  be  doubtful,  they  show 
that  Fou-So  and  Japan  are  two  different  countries. 

To  this  formal  testimony  derived  from  the  Chinese,  we 
must  add  that  of  Europeans.  The  first  is  Gomara,  who 
witnessed  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  and  was  a  contemporary 
of  the  expedition  which  followed.  He  tells  us  that  cora- 
])anions  of  Francesco- Vasquez  de  Coronado,  in  sailing  up  the 
Western  Sea  as  far  as  40°  N.  lat.,  met  Avith  ships  laden  with 
merchandise,  Avhich,  as  they  were  led  to  understand  by  the 
sailors,  had  been  at  sea  for  more  than  a  month.  The 
Spaniards  concluded  that  they  had  come  from  Cathay  or 
Sina. 

The  primary  object  of  the  ships  in  question  was  evidently 
that  of  commerce.  Such  pacific  relations  did  not,  however, 
always  exist  between  the  native  Americans  and  the  strangers 
jrom  the  west.  This  is  proved  by  the  testimony  of  an  Indian 
traveller,  preserved  by  Le  Page  du  Prat.  Moncacht-Ape 
{the  pain-killer)  was  certainly  a  remarkable  man.  Impelled 
by  the  desire  which  drove  Cosma  from  Koros  to  Thibet,  the 
wish  to  discover  the  original  home  of  his  tribe,  he  went  at 
first  in  a  north-easterly  direction  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  returned  to  Louisiana  and  started  again  for 
the  north-west.  Having  ascended  the  Missouri  to  its  source, 
he  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  reached  the  Pacific 
Ocean  by  descending  a  river,  which  he  called  the  beautiful 
river,  and  which  can  be  no  other  than  the  Oregon. 

There  he  heard  of  white,  bearded  men,  provided  with  arms 
hurling  thunder,  who  came  every  year  in  a  great  boat  to 
look  for  wood  which  they  used  for  dyeing,  and  carried  off  the 
natives  to  reduce  them  to  a  state  of  slavery.  Moncacht-Apd, 
who  was  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  firearms,  advised  his 
friends  to  prepare  an  ambuscade.  The  plans  which  he 
suggested  were  a  complete  success.  Several  of  the  aggressors 
were  slain.  The  Americans  at  once  saw  that  they  were  not 
Europeans.  Their  clothes  were  quite  different,  and  their 
arms  more  clumsy,  while  their  powder  was  coarser,  and 
did  not  carry  so  far.     Everything  tended  to  show  they  were 


2o6  The  Htunan  Species, 

Japanese,  accustomed  to  make  descents  upon  this  coast  of 
America  exactly  similar  to  those  undertaken  by  some  crews 
in  search  of  sandal  wood  in  Melanesia,  who  seize  the  blacks 
whenever  they  have  an  opportunity,  aud  give  them  up  to 
cotton  planters  under  the  name  of  coolies. 

The  narrative  of  Moncacht-Apd  was  given  in  the  year 
1725,  three  or  four  years  before  the  discovery  of  the  Behring 
Straits,  and  more  than  thirty  years  before  European  voyages 
had  acquainted  us  with  the  north-west  of  America.  The 
exact  details  which  he  gives  as  to  the  general  direction  of 
tlie  coast,  and  of  its  bend  at  the  peninsula  of  Alaska,  are  a 
sure  proof  of  the  correctness  and  truth  of  this  narrative. 
Thus,  however  much  it  may  wound  European  pride,  we 
must  acknowledge  that  Chinese  and  Japanese  Asiatics 
knew  and,  in  different  ways,  explored  America  long  before 
Europeans. 

V.  Nevertheless,  these  civilized  nations,  whose  ships  visited 
America,  do  not  seem  to  have  founded  large  settlements, 
which  could  become  the  starting  point  of  a  new  colony. 
Had  it  been  so,  they  would  have  left  more  traces  of  their 
passage  in  the  language.  Now,  with  the  exception  of  tlie 
small  Chinese  colony  of  which  I  have  spoken  above,  there  is 
scarcely  one  fact  of  this  nature  which  can  be  considered  as 
established.  Some  Califoruian  colonies  are  mentioned  as 
speaking  a  Japanese  dialect.  M.  Guillemin  Taraire  has  re- 
produced this  information  in  reference  to  a  tribe  of  Santa 
Barbara  ;  he  adds  that  the  lanouage  of  some  others  includes 
Japanese  and  Chinese  words.  Unfortunately  the  researches 
of  M.  Pinart,  far  from  confirming  these  results,  only  tend  to 
contradict  them  ;  we  can,  therefore,  only  speak  with  great 
reserve  upon  this  point. 

It  seems  to  me  to  have  been  principally  in  the  north  that 
the  great  migrations  took  place,  and  that  they  were  under- 
taken by  savage  nations.  The  traditions  borrowed  by  I'Abbe 
Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  from  the  sacred  books  of  the  Quichds, 
and  those  of  the  Dclawurcs  which  have  been  preserved  by 
Heckewclder,  api)ear  to  me  to  offer  much  information  on 


Migrations  in  America.  207 

this  point.  By  comparing  tho  missionary's  narrative  with 
some  fixcts  of  Mexican  history  anterior  to  the  conquest,  I  have 
been  enabled  to  determine  approximately  the  dcite  of  the 
arrival  of  the  Red-Skins  in  the  basin  of  the  Missouri.  It 
seems  to  me  that  we  cannot  refer  it  to  an  earlier  date  than 
the  ninth,  or  at  most  the  eighth,  century. 

These  traditions  bring  to  light  another  and  no  less  impor- 
tant fact :  namely,  that  the  Alonquins  and  Iroquois,  after 
having  crossed  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  from  which  they 
drove  the  people,  whose  singular  monuments  are  now  the 
object  of  study,  had  no  more  fighting  to  do,  and  found  the 
country  uninhabited  as  far  as  the  coast,  and  far  away  to  the 
south.  The  traditions  of  some  tribes  of  South  America 
point,  though  not  so  plainly,  to  the  same  conclusion.  Thus, 
probably  in  the  two  halves  of  the  New  World,  and  certainly 
in  the  northern  portion,  those  uninhabited  lands  existed 
which  we  have  already  noticed  in  Polynesia,  and  the  pre- 
tended American  autocJdhon  of  Agassiz,  Morton,  Nott,  and 
Gliddon  was,  on  the  contrary,  one  of  the  latest  arrivals  upon 
this  continent. 

These  facts  of  thin  populations,  and  of  their  low  social 
condition,  which  was  everywhere  the  case  except  in  those 
centres  where  legislators  had  appeared  who  were  perhaps 
entirely  foreign  to  the  soil,  involuntarily  lead  us  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  general  peopling  of  America  by  the 
existing  races,  though  it  may  be  traced  to  an  earlier  period 
thaa  that  of  Polynesia,  is,  nevertheless,  much  more  recent 
than  that  of  the  Old  World. 

VI.  It  is  not  from  Asia  alone  that  America  has  received  its 
population.  They  came  from  Europe  also  long  before  the 
era  of  gi'eat  discoveries;  I- am  not  now  alluding  either  to  the 
story  of  Atlantis,  of  which  many  interpretations  are  still 
possible,  or  to  Phoenician  and  Carthaginian  traditions,  nor 
again,  to  the  pretentions  of  the  Basques  and  Dieppois, 
although  they  appear  to  be  supported  by  facts,  which  are,  to 
say  the  least,  curious ;  nor  to  Irish  and  Welsh  traditions, 
though  Hund)oldt  considers  them  well  worthy  of  attention. 
10 


2o8  TJie  Hiunan  Species. 

I  shall  only  speak  of  the  voyages  accomplished  by  the 
Scandinavians  as  related  by  Kafn  from  Irish  sagas, ,  and 
which  have  been  lately  republished  in  detail  by  M.  Gravier. 

We  are  not  now  dealing  with  isolated  facts  belonging  to 
the  darkness  of  those  ages  which  they  only  occasionally 
illuminate.  It  is  a  detailed  history  embracing  several  gene- 
rations, and  sometimes  giving  circumstantial  details  which 
explain,  and  are  confirmed  by  certain  modern  discoveries. 

In  877,  according  to  M.  Gravier,  perhaps  as  early  as  770, 
according  to  M.  Lacroix,  Gunnbjorn  discovered  Greenland. 
In  886  Erick  the  Red  doubled  Cape  Farewell,  and  built  at 
the  head  of  a  fjord  his  house  Brattahilda,  the  lately  dis- 
covered ruins  of  which  have  been  compared  to  those  of  a 
town.  In  986  Bjarn  Meriulfson,  when  on  his  way  to  Green- 
land, was  carried  by  a  storm  as  far  as  the  shores  of  New 
England.  In  1000,  Leif,  the  son  of  Erick  the  Red,  started 
for  the  country  discovered  by  Bjarn.  Accompanied  by  35 
men,  he  ran  down  as  far  as  Rhode  Island,  where  he  found 
the  vine,  and  gave  the  name  of  Vln-lcmd  to'  the  country  of 
which  he  took  possession  ;  he  built  Lelfahudir,  passed  the 
winter  there,  and  noticed  that  the  shortest  day  began  at  half- 
past  seven  and  ended  at  half-past  four.  This  observation, 
which  agrees  with  all  the  other  details,  places  Leifsbudir 
near  the  present  town  of  Providence,  41°  24'  10"  N.  lat. 

Thorwald  succeeded  his  brother  Leif.  Followed  by  30 
warriors,  he  reached  Vinland  and  passed  the  winter  at  Leifs- 
budir. In  the  spring  of  1003  he  ran  down  as  far  as  Long 
Island,  explored  the  neighbourhood,  and  returned  in  the 
autumn  to  his  starting-point.  The  following  summer  he 
turned  his  steps  northwards.  Near  Cape  Alderton,  his  com- 
j)anions  surprised  three  boats  made  of  osier,  and  covered 
with  leather,  and  slew  eight  of  the  men  by  whom  they  were 
manned.  The  ninth  escaped  ;  he  soon  returned,  however, 
accompanied  by  a  great  number  of  his  fellow-countrymen, 
who  showered  upon  the  Scandinavians  a  cloud  of  arrows  and 
then  fled.  But  Thorwald,  mortally  wounded,  was  inten-ed 
in  this  laml  which  he  had  expressed  a  desire  to  inhabit.      It 


AligraiioJis  in  America.  209 

may  possibly  have  been  his  tomb  which  was  discovered  at 
the  end  of  the  last  century  in  Rainsford  Island,  near  to  Hull 
and  Cape  Alderton  ;  a  tomb  of  solid  masonry,  containing 
a  skeleton,  and  a  sword  with  an  iron  hilt,  indicating  a 
period  anterior  to  the  fifteenth  century. 

In  1007  Thorfinn,  accompanied  by  his  wife  Gudrida, 
started  with  three  ships  carrying  160  men,  some  women,  and 
cattle.  This  time  the  object  was  to  found  a  colony.  They 
settled  not  far  from  Leifsbudir  at  Mount  Hope  Bay.  The 
strangers  were  soon  visited  by  some  of  the  natives,  who  are 
easily  identified  with  the  Esquimaux  from  the  description 
given  in  the  Saga.  The  relations  maintained  with  these 
SkreUinga  were  at  first  pacific.  But  the  following  year  an 
act  of  brutality  on  the  part  of  a  Scandinavian  led  to  war,  and 
Thorfinn,  although  victorious,  did  not  feel  his  position  to  be 
secure,  and  resolved  to  return  to  his  country  with  his  com- 
panions, his  wife,  and  his  son  Snorre,  the  first  Scandinavian 
born  in  Vinland. 

Before  quitting  his  settlement,  the  chief  was  anxious  to 
leave  some  trace  of  his  presence.  Such,  at  least,  is  the 
opinion  adopted  by  Scandinavian  savants,  and  by  M.  Gravicr, 
on  tlie  subject  of  the  famous  Dighton  Writing  Rock.  This 
block  of  gneiss,  situated  upon  the  right  bank  of  Tauton 
River,  and  alteraately  covered  and  left  bare  by  the  tide, 
bears  a  certain  mmiber  of  characters  engraved  upon  it  to  the 
depth  of  eight  millimetres  (one-third  inch).  This  inscHp- 
iion,  which  has  given  rise  to  many  discussions,  has,  probably, 
a  double  origin.  Schoolcraft  tells  us  that  an  old  Indian,. who 
was  familiar  Avith  American  pictography,  recognized  the 
hand  of  his  countryman  in  a  certain  number  of  signs  which 
he  was  able  to  explain,  though  at  the  same  time  he  confessed 
that  others  were  quite  new  to  him.  On  the  other  hand, 
Magnuscn  and  his  followers  have  also  only  been  able  to 
interpret  some  of  these  same  signs.  They  were,  in  their 
opinion,  a  mixture  of  runic  and  cryptographic  signs,  and 
of  figures  referring  to  the  adventures  of  Thorfinn.  They 
thought  they  coiild  recognize  Gudrida  with  her  son  Snorre, 


2IO  The  Hiuiian  Species. 

and  the  phonetic  portion  might,  it  seemed,  be  translated  in 
the   following   manner : — 131   men    of   the    north   have 

OCCUPIED  THIS  COUNTRY — WITH  THORFINN.  I  should  add, 
however,  that  Mr.  Wittlesey  does  not  admit  the  existence  of 
a  single  alphabetical  inscription  in  the  United  States.  Yet 
we  must  not  suppose  that  the  opinion  of  the  American 
antiquarian  at  all  affects  the  authenticity  of  the  Sagas  which 
relate  the  history  of  Thorfinn. 

I  cannot  here  repeat  all  the  adventures  of  Thorvard  and 
Freydisa,  of  Ari  Marsou,  Bjorn  Asbrandson,  Gudleif  and 
Hervador  .  .  .  .  ,  but  I  must  remark,  in  reference  to 
the  latter,  that,  through  the  indications  contained  in  the 
Skalholt  Saga,  the  American  savants  have  been  able  to  find 
upon  the  shores  of  the  Potomac  the  tomb  of  a  woman  who 
fell  by  the  arrows  of  the  Skrellings  in  1051. 

VII.  The  colonies  founded  in  Greenland  by  Erick  and  his 
successors  multiplied  rapidly ;  both  the  cast  and  west  coasts 
were  peopled.  These  two  centres  bore  the  names  of  Osterhygd 
and  Vestcrhyijd.  From  the  documents  consulted  by  M.  F. 
Lacroix,  it  appears  that  the  former  possessed  a  cathedral, 
eleven  churches,  three  or  four  monasteries,  two  towns  called 
Garda  and  Alba,  and  190  Gaards  or  Norwegian  villages;  in  the 
second, there  were  four  churches  and  90  or  110  gaards.  These 
figures  clearly  indicate  a  considerable  population.  This  is 
still  more  strongly  proved  by  the  fact,  that  as  early  as  1121, 
an  Irishman,  Erick-Upsi,  was  created  Bishop  of  Greenland, 
and  had  eighteen  successors.  Vinland  was  in  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  this  diocese.  The  tithes  of  this  country  figured 
among  the  revenues  of  the  Ciiurch  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
and  were  paid  in  kind. 

This  prosperity,  and  the  regular  relations  between  Europe, 
Greenland,  and  Vinland  seem  to  have  lasted  till  towards  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  About  this  time  the 
Skrellings  attacked  Vesterbygd ;  the  succour  sent  by  the 
other  settlements  arrived  too  late,  and  the  western  colony 
was  destroyed.  Osterbygd  had  a  much  longer  existence. 
In  1418  it  still  paid  to  the  Holy  See  as  tithes  and  Peter's 


I\Iigrations  in  Ajucn'ca.  211 

Pence  3G00  pounds  of  walrus'  tusks.  At  a  period  anterior 
to  tliis  epoch,  however,  Queen  Margaret,  sovereign  of  the 
Scandinavian  dominions,  impelled  by  motives  which  have 
been  differently  interpreted,  had  interdicted  all  commerce 
with  the  Greenland  colonies.  Shortly  afterwards  fleets  of 
pirates,  springing  from  some  imknown  quarter,  came  down 
upon  and  pillaged  them  ;  the  temperature  of  both  land  and 
sea  gradually  fell ;  voyages  became  more  and  more  difficult, 
and,  at  last,  ceased  altogether.  Thus,  when  in  1721,  the 
Norwegian  Pastor,  Hans  Eggede,  led  to  those  frozen  lands 
the  first  modern  colony,  he  found  nothing  but  ruins,  and  not 
a  single  descendant  of  Erick  and  Thorfinn.  What  had  be- 
come of  them  ? 

A  letter  addressed  to  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  quoted  by 
M.  Lacroix,  throws  some  liglit  upon  their  fate.  It  is  dated 
14'48,  and  informs  us  that,  thirty  years  previously,  some 
strangers  coDiing  from  the  American  coasts  had  pillaged 
the  colony,  and  massacred  or  carried  into  slavery  the  greater 
number  of  the  inhabitants  of  both  sexes.  A  great  number 
had,  however,  returned  to  their  homes,  and  asked  for  help. 

It  is  hardly  possil)lc  to  avoid  referring  to  the  latter,  the 
white  population,  tall,  and  with  fair  hair,  which  Captain 
Graa  met  with  on  the  east  coast  of  Greenland,  during  his 
expedition  in  search  of  Osterbygd.  Notwithstanding  their 
adoption  of  the  Esquimaux  language,  they  certainly  did  not 
belong  to  their  race. 

But  were  all  the  descendants  of  the  bold  navigators  who 
had  discovered  America  content  to  live,  like  the  Skrellings, 
l)y  the  side  of  ruins  which  recalled  the  relative  grandeur  of 
their  fathers  ?  This  hypothesis  appears  to  me  inadmissible. 
It  seems  evident  to  me,  that  the  greater  number  of  the 
survivors  must  have  emigrated  and  sought  refuge  in  Vin- 
land,  of  the  existence  of  which  they  were  aware.  Perhaps 
they  were  repulsed  by  the  mixed  population  of  Scandinavians 
and  Esquimaux,  who  seem  very  early  to  have  come  into 
existence,  and  who  were,  perhaps,  the  invaders  mentioned 
in  the  letter  quoted   by   M.  Lacroix  ;    perhaps,    again,  they 


212  TJic  Hinimn  Species. 

may  have  encountered  ■warlike  and  inhospitable  tribes,  like 
those  mentioned  in  the  Saga  of  Gudleif.  But  the  Nor- 
Avcgians  would  then  only  have  pushed  on  further,  till  they 
met  with  some  hospitable  shore  where  they  could  settle. 

VIII.  However  this  may  be,  the  history  of  Scandinavian 
voyages  is  sufficient  to  explain  the  appearance  of  the  white 
type,  even  of  the  fair  type,  in  the  midst  of  American  popula- 
tions. I  do  not  hesitate  to  refer  to  this  Aryan  stock,  the 
white  Esquimaux  of  Charlevoix,  the  fair-haired  men  of  Pierre 
Martyr,  the  fair  men  spoken  of  in  some  Mexican  traditions, 
the  White  Savage  Chief  whom  the  Spaniards  met  with  in 
their  Cibola  expedition  .  .  .  etc. 

Besides,  the  discovery  and  the  repeated  invasions  of  the 
American  coasts  by  the  Scandinavians  show  the  estimation 
in  which  we  ought  to  hold  the  pretended  impossibility  of  the 
peopling  of  America.  Here,  we  have  no  longer  the  double 
pirogues  of  the  Polynesians,  carrying  150  warriors  ;  it  was 
in  loafs  manned  by  thirty  or  forty  men  that  Leif  and 
Thorwald  faced  the  Greenland  seas,  reached,  and  returned 
from  Vinland.  In  the  presence  of  sucli  facts,  can  we  regard 
our  improved  method  of  navigation  as  indlspensahle  to  long 
sea  voyages  ? 

Modern  civilization  has  placed  in  our  hands  an  imnionse 
power  of  action  unknown  to  our  ancestors.  It  enables  us  to 
accomplish  works  v.hich  they  would  have  thought  could  only 
be  expected  from  supernatural  powers.  Science  has  placed 
in  our  hands  the  majjic  rinj::,  and  we  have  become  so  used  to 
employing  it  for  the  satisfaction  of  our  smallest  wants,  that  it 
seems  to  us  impossible  to  do  without  it.  We  too  often  forget 
the  resources  which  man  possesses  in  himself,  and  which  form 
part  of  his  original  nature.  Thus,  wc  regard  less  advanced, 
less  learned  races  as  incapable  of  accomplishing  that  which 
we  should  not  dare  to  undertake  without  the  aid  which  we 
have  been  able  to  create  for  ourselves. 

Wc  have  just  seen  how  fully  the  history  of  the  Polynesians 
and  Scandinavians  contradicts  these  fulse  ideas,  and  how  they 
justify  the  words  of  Lyell  : — "Supposing  the  human   genus 


Miirrations  in  America.  2 1 


v> 


were  to  disappear  entirely,  with  the  exception  of  a  single 
family,  placed  either  upon  the  Ocean  of  the  New  Continent, 
iu  Australia,  or  upon  some  coral  island  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
we  may  be  sure  that  its  descendants  would,  in  the  course  of 
ages,  succeed  in  invading  the  whole  earth,  although  they 
n)ight  not  have  attained  a  higher  degree  of  civilization  than 
the  Esquimaux  or  the  South  Sea  Islanders." 


BOOK   YI. 

ACCLIMATISATION    OF    THE    HUMAN    SPECIES. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

INFLUENX'E   OF   CONDITIONS   OF    LIFE   AND    RACF:. 

I.  The  liuiiiaii  species,  springing  originally  from  a  single 
centre  of  appearance,  is  now  universally  distributed.  In 
their  innumerable  travels,  its  representatives  have  en- 
countered the  widest  difference  of  climate  and  the  most 
opposite  conditions  of  life,  and  now  inhabit  both  the  polar 
and  equatorial  regions.  It  must,  therefore,  have  possessed 
tlie  necessary  aptitudes  for  accommodating  itself  to  all  the 
natural  conditions  of  existence  ;  in  other  words,  it  must  have 
had  the  power  of  becoming  acdiinatiscd  and  naturalised 
in  every  })lace  where  we  meet  with  it. 

The  j)ossibility  of  man  living  and  prospciing  in  otlier 
regions  than  those  in  which  his  fathers  lived,  has  been 
denied  in  a  more  or  les^  emphatic  manner  by  the  greater 
numbur  of  j)olygenists.  Without  going  as  far  as  thi.s,  cer- 
tain monogenists  have  held  that  a  human  race,  when  con- 
.stituted  for  given  conditions  of  life,  was,  so  to  speak,  a. 
pris(»ncr  to  them,  and  could  not  effect  a  change  without 
losing  his  life.  Other  writers  have  maintained  precisely 
opposite  opinions,  and  have  held  that  any  human  group 
covild  at  once  become  acclimatised  in  any  given  spot. 

There  are  exaggerations  and  errurs  in  all  these  extreme 
doctrinejs. 


Influence  of  Conditions  of  Life  and  Race.   215 

II.  In  spite  of  the  assertions  of  Knox,  Frenchmen  can 
live  perfectly  well  in  Corsica,  provided  only,  that  they 
avoid  the  marshes  of  the  eastern  coast,  which  the  islanders 
themselves  cannot  inliabit.  After  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  the  fugitives  from  Provence  and  Langue- 
doc  founded  villages  in  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  thus 
contradicting  beforeliand  one  of  the  assertions  of  the  Eng- 
lish doctor,  English  and  French  emigrants  to  the  United 
States,  and  to  Canada,  have  not  degenerated,  in  spite  of 
the  assertions  of  the  same  author.  Though  modified,  often 
in  a  very  striking  manner,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  the 
Yankee  squatters  and  the  Canadian  hacJcicoodsmcn  are 
certainly  not  inferior  to  the  first  colonists  who  planted  the 
European  standard  in  the  midst  of  the  Red-Skins. 

Knox,  and  the  anthropologists  who  agree  either  entirely  or 
partially  with  him,  attribute  to  emigration  alone  the  main- 
tenance and  growth  of  the  white  population  in  America  and 
elsewhere.  In  their  opinion  the  European  emigrant  loses, 
after  several  generations,  the  power  of  reproduction.  If  the 
human  current,  which  sets  from  Europe  towards  the  Colonies 
were  to  be  stopped,  they  maintain  that  the  population  would 
rapidly  diminish,  and  the  local  races  regain  the  ascendancy, 
that  tlie  United  States  would  return  to  the  iW-Skins,  and 
Mexico  to  the  descendants  of  Montezuma. 

This  assertion  will  easily  be  answered  by  a  few  statistics. 
They  are  taken  from  the  history  of  French  races,  which, 
since  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1703,  have,  although  in  a  slight 
degree,  directly  contributed  to  the  peopling  of  Canada. 
There  were  in  this  country  : 

In  ISl  I        ,        .        27i>.OO0  inliabitauts  of  French  origin. 
In  1S51        .         .        fi;tr..lU.j  „  „ 

In  ISGl        .         .     1,037,770  „  m 

in  Ottawa  State  there  were  : 

In  IS.-)!       .        .  Total  population  .        .        .  ]r..000 

.  French         ,,  ...  S.Chk;) 

In  lSt'.3       .         .  Total  population  .         .         .  2.").(H»0 

.  French        „  ...  1. '-,"<»'> 


2 1 6  The  II 71  mail  Species. 

The  history  of  the  Acadians  furnishes  statistics  which  are 
quite  as  convincing.  From  the  information  obtained  by  M. 
Rameau,  it  appears  that  the  entire  population  was  descended 
from  forty-seven  families,  numbering  400  souls  in  1671.  In 
]7'55  there  were  18,000.  Dispersed  and  driven  out  by  the 
English  they  Avere  reduced  to  only  8,000.  In  1861,  the 
number  rose  to  95,000  persons. 

If  we  calculate  from  the  preceding  figures  the  annual  in- 
crease of  French  populations  in  America,  we  shall  find  the 
ratio  equal  or  superior  to  that  furnished  by  the  most 
favoured  European  populations.  This  proves  that  the 
French  race  shows  no  sign  of  disappearance,  even  in  the 
country  chosen  as  an  example  by  Knox. 

Without  entering  into  too  many  details,  let  us  remember 
that  the  French  have  lived  and  increased  in  number  at 
Cunstantia,  not  far  from  the  Cape,  since  the  revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes ;  that  this  same  region  has  been 
colonized  by  the  Dutch,  whose  descendants,  the  Boers,  have 
migrated,  and  now  form  the  Transvaal  Republic  ;  that  tlicy 
have  been  succeeded  at  tlie  Cape  by  the  English,  who,  by 
degrees,  have  overrun  the  whole  country.  We  must  also 
remember  the  rapid  growth  of  the  Anglo-Australian  colonies, 
etc. ;  and,  finally,  let  us  not  forget  those  nine  families  of 
missionaries  visited  by  M.  do  Delapelin  in  Polynesia,  which, 
in  all,  numbered  sixty-nine  children,  that  is  to  say,  a  mean 
of  more  than  seven  and  a  half  each,  and  we  shall  be  forced  to 
acknowledge  that  the  most  highly  characterised  European 
white  can  live  and  increase  in  number  in  both  hemispheres, 
at  tlie  antipodes,  and  in  tiie  native  countries  of  the  most 
different  races. 

Finthev,  the  '^reat  race  to  which  he  liimself  belonirs  was 
not  originally  European.  It  proljably  sprang  from  the  moun- 
tain district  of  tlie  Boim-  and  the  Ilindoo-koh,  where  the 
Mamogis  still  represent  the  original  stock.  In  any  case,  the 
Z<-nd-Avesta  informs  us  that  it  issued  from  a  region  where 
liu;  suni!i»er  lasted  but  two  Mionlhs,  a  eliniafe  wliieli  almost 
corresponds  to  that  of  Finland.     Step  by  .step    it  advanced, 


Injlucncc  of  Conditions  of  Life  and  Race.  217 

on  the  one  hand  as  far  as  the  Gangetic  peninsula  and  Cey- 
lon, on  the  other  to  Iceland  and  Greenland.  Afterwards, 
when  the  era  of  great  discoveries  had  commenced,  it  dis- 
tributed its  colonies  over  the  whole  world,  peopling  conti- 
nents, and  replacing  indigenous  races. 

The  consideration  of  these  general  facts  alone,  and  the 
result  of  this  perpetual  activity,  make  it  impossible  to  deny 
to  the  Aryan  race  the  faculty  of  acclimatisation,  under  the 
most  diverse  conditions  of  existence.  All  the  assertions  of 
Knox,  and  of  his  more  or  less  avowed  disciples,  fall  before 
these  facts. 

What  is  true  for  the  Aryan  race  is  equally  true  for  the 
Negro.  The  White  has  transported  the  Black  to  almost 
every  part  of  the  globe,  and  in  the  most  distant  places  the 
Black  lives  side  by  side  with  his  master.  Our  experience 
as  to  the  Yellow  Races  is  still  slight,  but  we  can  already 
foresee  that  the  result  will  be  the  same.  Chinese  and 
Coolies  have  passed  over  into  America  from  Asia;  we  shall 
perhaps  soon  see  them  in  Africa  and  in  Europe. 

Certain  branches  detached  from  the  great  ethnical  stocks 
have  already  offered  similar  evidences.  The  Gipsies,  Aryans 
mixed,  perhaps,  with  Dravidians,  have  overrun  the  whole  of 
Europe,  and  are  now  met  with  everywhere.  As  to  the  Jews, 
we  know  that  they  are  really  cosmopolitan,  and  that  almost 
everywhere,  in  Prussia  as  in  Algeria,  their  fecundity  sur- 
passes that  of  the  local  races. 

III.  I  do  not  mean  by  this  that  I  consider  the  Aryan,  or 
any  races,  capable  of  always  becoming  at  once  acclimatised 
in  any  given  locality.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  regions 
which  are  fatal  to  man,  to  whatever  group  he  may  belon"-, 
and  however  well  prepared  he  may  seem  to  be  to  brave  their 
intiuence.  Such  is  the  great  estuary  of  the  Gaboon,  where  the 
Negro  himself  cannot  live.  The  general  constitution  of  the 
inhabitants  grows  sensibly  weaker;  the  reproductive  organs 
appear  to  be  particularly  affected,  and  the  number  of  women 
greatly  surpas.ses  that  of  the  men.  We  know  how  dangerous 
the  climate  of  this  country  is  to  the  European,  and  it  will  be 


2 1 8  The  Ilunian  Species. 

interesting  to  sec  wlietlicr  the  Paouins  will  in  their  tur.-i 
yield  to  the  deleterious  influence  of  these  coasts,  which  they 
are  gradually  approaching. 

We  need  not,  moreover,  go  so  far  for  examples.  Who 
does  not  know  the  reputation  of  the  Maremuia,  and  the 
marshes  of  Corsica  ?  At  one  time  the  swamps  of  the  Dombe, 
and  the  mouth  of  the  Charente,  in  France,  were  scarcely  less 
dangerous. 

Even  where  the  conditions  are  much  less  severe,  acclimati- 
sation almost  always  demands  numerous  and  melancholy 
sacrifices,  which  some  anthropologists  have  done  wrong  to 
overlook.  The  fact  is  but  too  natural.  A  race,  which  has 
settled  under  the  influence  of  certain  conditions  of  existence, 
cannot  effect  a  change  without  undergoing  modification,  and 
hence  sufiferinjr.  This  fact  w^ll  be  noticed  in  some  detail 
in  the  chapter  dedicated  to  the  formation  of  these  derived 
groups  from  the  species.  I  can  here  only  point  out  the 
general  law. 

IV.  Thus,  every  colonization  of  a  distant  country  must  be 
regarded  in  the  first  place  as  a  conquest  attempted  by  the 
immigrating  race.  Now,  whether  the  battle  has  to  be  fought 
with  man  or  with  the  conditions  of  life,  the  victory  is  only 
gained  at  the  cost  of  human  life.  We  must  not,  however, 
exaggerate  the  extent  of  inevitable  losses,  and  deny  the 
possibility  of  acclimatisation.  We  must  put  the  problem 
clearly,  and  seek  for  experimental  data,  whence  the  solution 
may  be  naturally  deduced. 

Every  question  of  acclimatisation  comprises  two  terms, 
which  are,  so  to  speak,  the  comfoncnts  of  the  resultant 
which  we  are  seeking  for  or  studying.  These  terms  arc  race 
and  conditions  of  life.  We  already  know  the  exact  significance 
of  the  former  of  these  two  words,  and  we  shall  presently 
consider  in  some  detail  what  we  are  to  understand  by  the 
latter.  At  present  we  will  take  it  as  simply  representing  all 
the  conditions  of  existence  presented  by  a  given  place,  and 
proceed  to  point  out  its  influence  in  acclimatisation. 

We  have  seen  that  certain  conditions  of  life  appear  to  be 


Infljicnce  of  Condilions  of  Life  and  Race.    219 

fatal  to  all  races.  In  cases  of  this  kind,  we  should  distinguish 
how  much  of  this  insalubrity  is  due  to  the  regions,  and  how 
much  is  the  result  of  accidental  circumstances,  sometimes 
provoked  by  man  himself.  The  plain  of  the  Dombe  in 
France  was  once  as  salubrious  as  the  surrounding  country. 
The  exaggerated  industry  of  the  marshes  transformed  it  into 
a  pestilential  region,  where  it  was  quite  as  fatal  for  foreign 
populations  to  live  as  it  would  have  been  in  the  swamps  of 
tlie  Senegal.  Sanitary  measures  are  now  tending  to  restore  it 
to  its  former  condition.  It  is  evident  that  we  cannot  reproach 
the  Dombe  with  the  deleterious  influence  which  human 
intelligence  seems  to  have  undertaken  to  develop. 

Even  when  the  latter  does  not  step  in  to  vitiate  the  con- 
ditions of  life,  we  cannot  charge  a  country  with  opposing 
unfavourable  conditions  to  an  indigenous  or  foreign  race, 
when  these  conditions  ma}'  be  attributed  to  the  negligence 
of  the  inhabitants,  or  to  some  special  cause,  which  human 
intelligence  might  modify.  Deprived  of  the  care  which 
rendered  it  healthy  and  luxuriant,  the  Campagna  of  Rome 
has  become  a  branch  of  the  Pontine  Marshes.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  environs  of  E.ochefort  have  become  healthy  ;  Bouf- 
farik,  once  one  of  the  most  dangerous  spots  in  Algeria,  has 
become  the  centre  of  a  flourishing  population.  It  was  not, 
therefore,  the  general  natural  conditions  which  rendered  these 
localities  dangerous,  especially  to  strangers,  but  simply  acci- 
dent. As  soon  as  the  cause  is  removed,  acclimatisation 
becomes  not  only  possible,  but  easy. 

Considered  from  this  point  of  view,  many  countries,  which 
now  appear  to  repel  all  attempts  at  immigration,  will,  perhaps, 
at  some  future  period,  be  particularly  favourable  to  the  deve- 
lopment of  colonizing  races.  It  is  clear  that  in  all  cases  of 
this  kind  we  must  distinguish  between  normal  and  accidcni- 
allfj  vitiated  conditions  of  life. 

I  cannot  enter  into  all  the  details  which  this  distinction 
would  allow,  and  shall  confine  myself  to  quoting  a  few 
facts. 

The  very  progress  of  civilization  sometimes  results  in  the 


220  The  Ihunan  Species. 

vitiation  of  certain  conditions  of  life.  Sucli  is  the  almost 
inevitable  result  of  the  crowding  together  of  human  beings 
in  a  relatively  limited  space.  This  is  one  of  the  points  most 
clearly  demonstrated  in  the  statistical  researches  of  M.  Boudin 
upon  the  comparative  mortality  of  the  country  and  of  barracks, 
for  example.  A  comparison  of  our  large  towns  and  rural 
districts  leads  to  the  same  result,  and  points  to  a  special 
action  upon  the  organs  of  reproduction.  M.  Boudin  could 
not  find  a  pure-blooded  Parisian  whose  genealogy  could  be 
traced  for  more  than  three  generations.  At  Besancon,  town 
families  become  extinct  in  less  than  a  centur}'^,  and  are  re- 
placed by  others  from  the  country.  London,  I  have  been 
assured,  presents  a  similar  phenomenon. 

Do  not  ships,  in  which  men  live  crowded  together  for 
months  under  very  unsatisfactory  sanitary  conditions,  deve- 
lop deleterious  principles,  to  which  the  crews  become  accus- 
tomed by  degrees,  but  which  are,  nevertheless,  capable  of 
producing  the  most  serious  affections  in  the  midst  of  sur- 
rounding populations,  which,  till  then,  had  been  in  a  flourishing 
condition.  Have  we  here  one  of  those  phenomena  to  which, 
according  to  Darwin,  we  must  attribute  the  terrible  mortality 
and  increasing  sterility  of  the  Polynesian  races  ?  Among  the 
diseases  introduced  by  European  sailors,  ought  Ave  not  to 
reckon  phthisis,  which  is  said  to  have  become  epidemic,  as 
well  as  hereditary,  in  those  islands  ?  The  probabilities  seem 
to  me  to  be  in  favour  of  an  answer  in  the  affirmative.  Neither 
land  nor  sky  have  changed  in  these  archipelagoes  since  the 
time  of  their  discovery,  and  yet  the  Polynesian  Islanders 
disappear  with  a  terrible  rapidity,  whilst  their  mixed  races 
and  even  pure-blooded  Europeans  show  a  redoubled  fertility 
— a  double  C(Mitra{lictiou  given  by  facts  to  autochthonic 
doctrines. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  determine,  in  judging  of  the  more 
or  less  deleterious  action  of  given  conditions  of  life,  what 
.should  be  attributed  to  normal  conditions,  and  what  is  the 
result  of  accidental  vitiating  elements.  The  soil,  cold,  heat, 
dryness,  or  humidity  (^f  a  countiy  ar(;  not  all.    'J'lio  ditfcrence 


InJIuence  of  Conditions  of  Life  ajid  Race.   221 

presented  from  the  point  of  view  of  acclimatisation  by  tlic 
two  hemispheres  is  a  striking  example. 

The  hot  regions  of  the  southern  hemisphere  are,  as  a  rule, 
more  accessible  to  white  races  than  those  in  similar  latitudes 
in  the  northern  hemisphere.  From  30  to  35  degrees  of  N. 
lat.  Ave  find  Algeria,  and  especially  the  southern  part  of  the 
United  States,  which  present  serious  difficulties  against  our 
acclimatisation.  In  the  .same  latitude  of  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, lie  the  southern  portion  of  the  Cape  and  New  South 
Wales,  where  all  European  races  prosper  almost  immediately. 
M.  Boudin's  calculations  give  the  differences  exactly.  He 
has  found  that  the  mean  mortality  of  French  and  English 
armies  was  about  eleven  times  greater  in  our  hemisphere 
•than  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

Stmck  by  this  contrast,  M.  Boudin  endeavoured  to  discover 
its  cause,  and  found  that  it  lay  in  the  greater  or  less  fre- 
quency and  gravity  of  marsh  fevers.  North  of  the  equator 
these  fevers  may  be  traced  in  Europe  as  far  as  the  o9th  deg. 
of  latitude.  In  the  south  they  rarely  pass  the  tropics,  and 
often  cease  at  an  even  smaller  distance.  Tahiti,  which  is  only 
18  deg.  from  the  geographical  equator,  and  almost  beneath 
the  thermal  equator,  is  free  from  them.  In  the  southern 
hemisphere,  the  mean  annual  number  of  cases  of  fever  in  the 
united  Engli.>;h  and  French  colonies  was  IG  in  1000;  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  it  was  2249  in  1000. 

Thus,  marsh  fevers  are  almost  200  times  more  frequent  to 
the  north  than  to  the  south  of  the  equator,  although  in  South 
America  and  Australia,  for  example,  vast  tracts  are  covered 
with  standing  water  under  a  burning  sun.  They  are,  more- 
over, of  a  far  less  serious  nature  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 
The  immense  lagoons  of  Corrientes  only  occasion  slight  fevers. 
We  know  how  dangerous,  on  the  contrary,  are  those  of  the 
Pontine  Marshes,  which  are  situated  at  a  much  greater  dis- 
tance from  the  equator.  It  would  be  much  more  difficult  for  a 
European  to  live  in  Italy  upon  the  banks  of  tiic  Carigliano, 
than  in  America  upon  those  of  the  Parana, 

In  spite  of  some  experiments  and  ingenious  theories,  these 


2  22  The  Human  Species. 

differences  behvecn  localities,  apparently  presenting  almost 
identical  general  physical  conditions,  have  not  yet  been  ex- 
plained. The  researches  of  M.  Boudin,  however,  justify  us 
in  regarding  these  marsh  miasmata  as  very  probably  the 
greatest  and  often  the  only  obstacle  to  the  acclimatisatioii  of 
Europeans  in  the  greater  number  of  those  places  to  which 
the  spirit  of  enterprise  has  led  them.  There  is  something 
very  encouraging  and  instructive  in  this  fact.  We  know  by 
what  combination  of  circumstances  these  pestilential  mias- 
mata are  engendered;  we  know  how  it  is  possible  to  resist 
tliem.  Man  can,  then,  wherever  he  may  go,  fight  against 
nature,  and  at  least  somewhat  ameliorate  the  conditions  of 
acclimatisation.  It  has,  until  now,  been  impossible  to  make 
a  whole  country  healthy  in  a  short  space  of  time.  This  was 
a  work  which  time  alone  seemed  to  be  able  to  accomplish, 
very  often  at  a  heavy  cost  of  human  life.  It  seems  as  if  the 
introduction  of  the  eucalyptus  would,  in  a  great  measure  at 
least,  tend  to  diminish  these  sacrifices. 

Should,  however,  the  tree  brought  from  Australia  by  M. 
Ramel  justify  all  our  hopes,  we  shall  find  that  some  care 
must  still  be  taken  in  the  choice  of  station.  I  shall  presently 
show  how,  in  countries  which  are  apparently  most  dangerous, 
there  are  circumscribed  spots  where  acclimatisation  takes 
place  almost  immediately.  It  is  clear  that  new  comers  ought 
to  look  carefully  for  these  favoured  localities,  and  pitch  their 
tents  there.  The  contrary  has  almost  always  been,  and  still 
is,  the  case.  They  allow  themselves  to  be  seduced  by  the 
beauty  and  fertility  of  the  alluvial  lands  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  some  river,  or  upon  the  shores  of  some  bay  calcu- 
lated to  facilitate  commerce,  without  considering  their  un- 
healthiness.  They  settle  down  and  build  there,  without  being 
disturbed  by  the  losses  which  overwhelm  fresh  arrivals ;  and 
thus  it  is  that  pestilential  flats,  like  that  of  Batavia,  have 
l)ecome  inhabited. 

V.  I  cannot  here  consider  in  any  detail  the  action  of  con- 
ditions of  life  upon  human  races,  without  anticipating  con- 
siderations which  will  be  more  appropriate  in  another  chapter. 


Injlttcncc  of  Conditions  of  Life  and  Race.  223 

I  shall  only  point  out  a  very  general  fact,  and  one  of  great 
interest  in  the  problem  of  acclimatisation. 

We  know  that  the  animal  and  vegetable  races  of  one 
species,  although  in  reality  subject  to  the  same  influences, 
have,  nevertheless,  their  special  aptitudes  ;  and,  more  espe- 
cially, some  affection  which  is  very  general  in  one  will  bo 
very  rare  in  another.  The  c:ise  is  precisely  similar  with 
human  races. 

Marsh  fevers  act  in  the  same  manner  upon  all  men.  The 
Negro  suffers  and  dies  from  fever  on  the  banks  of  the  Niger, 
but  in  a  much  less  degree  than  the  White,  Moreover,  the 
two  races,  when  transposed  to  India,  preserve,  in  this  respect, 
almost  the  same  relations.  Compared  wuth  local  races,  the 
Negro  still  retains  the  ascendancy  ;  he  is  everywhere  the 
last  attacked  by  malarious  emanations.  Born  in  a  country 
where  he  is  obliged  almost  incessantly  and  universally  to 
breathe  them,  descended  from  ancestors,  Avho  from  prehistoric 
times  have  lived  in  this  poisoned  air,  he  has  become  acclima- 
tised to  it  more  than  any  other  race  ;  on  this  account  alone, 
he  is  able  to  prosper  in  places  where  the  White  would  suffer 
for  a  long  time. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Negro  has  a  delicate  chest,  and  no 
race  is  so  subject  to  consumption,  Avhilst  this  malady  is  much 
more  rarely  fatal  to  the  White  or  to  the  Malay. 

From  the  extreme  differences  presented  by  the  White  and 
the  Negro  it  follows  that  the  general  conditions  of  acclimatisa- 
tion are  reversed  in  the  two  races.  A  moderately  Avarm  air 
which  is  impregnated  with  malarious  emanations  is  danger- 
ous to  the  European.  A  moderate  degree  even  of  damp  cold 
will  be  fatal  to  the  Negro. 

These  few  facts  are  sufficient  to  show  that  the  conditions 
of  acclimatisation  vary  with  the  race  ;  that  the  same  climate 
cannot  exercise  the  same  kind  of  action  upon  different  races, 
and  that  complete  acclimatisation,  that  is  to  say,  naturalisa- 
tion, can  only  follow  upon  the  harmony  of  these  two  terms — • 
race  and  conditions  of  life. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

CONDITIONS  OF   ACCLIMATISATION. 

I,  The  possibility  of  establishing  the  harmony,  of  which  I 
liavc  spoken  in  the  preceding  chapter,  has  been  denied.  It 
lias  been  argued  that  it  must  exist  beforehand,  and  that 
instead  of  becoming  acclimatised,  people  merely  become 
accustomed  to  a  given  place.  It  will  be  easy  to  show  from 
what  takes  place  in  animals  and  plants,  that  there  is,  in  their 
case,  something  more  than  this,  and  that  the  organisation  is 
sometimes  modified  in  its  most  intimate  relations  so  as  to 
conform  to  the  exigencies  of  conditions  of  life,  which  arc  by 
nature  inflexible. 

The  chrysanthemum  {Pyrcirum  sinense),  which  adorns 
our  gardens,  came,  as  we  know,  originally  from  China.  In- 
troduced into  France  in  1790,  it  flourished  there  and  pro- 
duced fruit  which  it  was  unable  to  ripen,  so  that  commerce 
alone  supplied  our  flower  gardens  with  the  necessary  seed 
for  more  than  sixty  years.  The  attempt  to  rear  it  in  hot- 
liouses  and  frames  met  with  very  small  success.  In  1852  a 
few  plants  were  observed  to  flower  and  to  fruit  sooner  than 
the  others;  the  seeds  ripened,  and  France  now  produces  all 
the  .seed  which  she  requires.  A  small  number  of  accidentally 
precocious  plants  have,  therefore,  acclimatised  this  beautiful 
Ihnver. 

The  history  of  the  Egyptian  goose  (Anser  cgupliacus)  is 
still  more  striking.  Brought  to  France  in  1801,  by  Geolfroy 
Saint-Hilaire,  this  species  at  first  laid  in  December,  as  in  its 
native  country.  It  reared  its  brood  in  the  depth  of  winter, 
and  consequently  under  very  unfavourable  circumstances. 
Several  generations  were,  nevertheless,  reared  at  the  Museum. 


Conditions  of  Acclimatisation.  225 

Now  in  1844  the  Liids  laid  iu  February,  the  following  year 
ill  March,  and  in  1846  in  April,  the  time  at  which  our  common 
goose  lays.  Is  it  not  clear  that  the  organisation  of  the 
Egyptian  goose  had  accommodated  itself  to  the  conditions 
imposed  by  our  climate? 

This  marvellous  faculty  of  living  beings  is  sometimes  even 
inconvenient.  French  vines  when  removed  to  the  island  of 
Bourbon  yield  grapes  continually,  so  that  the  mixture  of 
clusters  in  every  stage  of  development  and  maturity  has  been 
a  serious  obstacle  in  the  manufacture  of  the  wine.  Silk- 
worms have  acted  in  a  similar  manner  ;  they  have  laid  their 
eggs  and  spun  their  cocoons  with  perfect  indifference  as  to 
the  season  of  the  year,  and  in  such  an  irregular  manner  as  to 
force  breeders  to  give  up  rearing  them. 

Acclimatisation,  that  is  to  say,  'pliys'iolorjical  adaptation 
to  new  conditions  of  life,  is  an  incontestable  fact.  All  our 
domestic  races  which  have  been  imported  into  America  are 
prospering  there.  When  the  conditions  of  existence  have 
been  almost  the  same  as  those  of  their  native  country,  they 
have  chansfcd  but  little.  When  the  new  conditions  have 
differed  too  widely  from  the  old  ones,  local  races  have  been 
formed  ;  and  thus,  though  perhaps  assisted  by  human  in- 
dustry, i')\gs  v:ith  fleece  are  to  be  found  on  the  cold  plateaux 
of  the  Cordilleras,  sheei')  with  hair  in  the  warm  valleys  of  the 
Madeleine,  and  hairless  cattle  in  the  burning  plains  of 
Mariquita.  Is  it  not  clear  that  these  pigs,  sheep,  and  oxen, 
these  descendants  of  our  races  in  temperate  climates,  have 
established  a  harmony  between  themselves  and  the  conditions 
of  life? 

II.  But,  as  I  said  before,  this  harmony  is  scarcely  ever 
obtained  without  struggles  and  sacrifices.  In  this  respect 
ngain  man  resembles  plants  and  animals.  Let  us  sec,  in 
tlie  first  place,  what  may  be  learnt  on  this  subject  from  these 
beings  of  inferior  organisation. 

It  is  Avell  known  that  two  kinds  of  wheat  are  recognised 
by  agriculturalists,  one  of  which  is  sown  in  spring  and  the 
other  in  autumn,  both,  being  reaped  at  abont  the  same  time. 


2  26  TJic  Hi  nil  an  Species. 

It  is  evident  that  the  conditions  of  development  are  very- 
different  in  the  two  cases.  To  sow  a  spring  wheat  in 
autumn,  was,  so  to  speak,  changing  the  condition  of  existence, 
and,  consequently,  attempting  an  experiment  in  acclimatisa- 
tion. This  was  done  by  the  celebrated  Abbe'  Tcssier.  A 
hundred  seeds  of  autumn  wheat  were  sown  in  spring ;  they 
all  came  up  and  produced  young  plants,  which  passed 
through  the  usual  stages  of  vegetation.  Only  ten  plants, 
however,  formed  seeds,  which  only  ripened  upon  four  plants. 
A  hundred  seeds  of  this  first  crop  produced  fifty  fertile 
plants.  In  the  third  generation  the  hundred  seeds  produced 
corn.     The  inverse  experiment  gave  similar  results. 

The  acclimatisation  of  wheat  at  Sierra  Leone  offers  still 
more  instructive  peculiarities.  The  first  year  almost  all  the 
seed  ran  to  leaf;  the  ears  were  very  few,  and  poorly  filled. 
The  seeds  of  this  first  crop  were  sown  ;  a  great  number  did 
not  come  up  at  all.  Those  which  survived  were  a  little 
more  fertile.  Much  patience  was,  however,  required,  and 
many  generations  passed  before  normal  crops  were  obtained. 
'AVe  see  that  in  Tessicr's  experiment  all  the  seeds  of  wheat 
and  their  germs  lived,  but  the  grain  was  wanting,  or  was 
more  or  less  abortive.  There  was,  then,  a  loss  of  genera- 
tions. The  same  thing  occurred  at  Sierra  Leone.  Moreover, 
the  second  time  the  seed  was  sown,  some  of  it  never  came 
up  at  all.  Here,  therefore,  the  loss  of  individuals  was  added 
to  that  of  generations. 

The  history  of  our  poultry  which  has  been  imported  into 
America,  presents  equally  significant  facts.  At  Cuzco  the 
broods  arc  just  as  large  as  in  Europe.  Garcilasso  dc  la 
Vi-'ga  tells  us,  however,  that  in  his  time  the  eggs  were  few, 
:iri(l  the  chickens  difficult  to  rear.  The  species  has,  since 
then,  become  acclimatised. 

When  M.  Roulin  made  his  observations  upon  the  geese 
imported  into  Bogota,  it  was  more  than  twenty  years  since 
they  had  been  first  brought  to  that  high  plateau,  and,  even 
tlien,  they  had  not  attained  their  normal  fecundity.  They 
were  not,  however,  far  from  it,  while  at  first  the  eggs  were 


Conditions  of  Acclimatisation.  227 

very  rare.  A  quarter,  at  the  most,  of  the  eggs  were  hatched, 
and  half  the  gosUogs  died  before  the  ead  of  the  first  month. 
Thus,  on  the  one  hand,  the  Bogota  breeder  did  not  obtani 
nearly  as  many  eggs  as  he  would  have  done  in  Europe, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  at  the  end  of  a  period  scarcely 
equal  to  the  two-hundredth  part  of  the  life  of  the  goose,  he 
obtained  from  these  eggs  scarcely  one-eighth  of  what  they 
would  have  produced  in  Europe. 

Tlie  history  of  these  Bogota  geese  is  most  instructive.  At 
the  outset  we  meet  with  all  those  circumstances  which  would 
seem  to  justify  us  in  the  prediction  of  a  failure.  The 
infertility  of  the  females,  as  attested  by  the  rarity  of  the 
eggs,  and  that  of  the  males,  as  shown  in  the  strong  propor- 
tion of  addle  eggs,  point  to  a  serious  physiological  injury  to 
the  organs  whose  action  alone  insures  the  permanence  of  the 
species.  The  enormous  mortality  among  the  young  birds 
betrayed  a  no  less  serious  alteration  in  the  components  of 
individual  life.  Nevertheless,  at  the  time  of  M.  Roulin's 
journey,  acclimatisation  had  been  almost  realised,  and  must 
without  doubt  now  be  completed. 

More  than  twenty  years  were,  however,  necessary  for  the 
organisation  of  this  European  bird  to  establish  a  harmony 
between  itself  and  the  conditions  of  existence  on  the  high 
plateaus  of  Ainerica.  The  brcclcrs  were  consequently  forced 
to  submit  to  many  losses,  affecting  both  generations  and 
individuals. 

We  see  what  took  place  iu  the  case  of  the  fowls  and  geese 
as  well  as  in  that  of  the  wheat.  Shortly  after  their  emigra- 
tion the  climate  killed  all  those  who  were  unable  to  conform 
to  the  new  exigencies.  A  certain  number  offered  sufficient 
resistance  to  live  almost  as  long  as  they  would  have  done 
under  their  natural  conditions  of  existence ;  but  their 
weakened  organisation  was  unfitted  for  generation,  or  could 
only  produce  beings  which  at  once  succumbed.  Through 
all  these  disasters,  however,  a  few  privileged  organisations 
conformed,  from  the  first,  more  or  less  to  the  new  exigencies. 
With    slight    modifications    they    transmitted     their    own 


2  28  The  Human  Species. 

acquirements  combined  with  tlie  suitable  aptitudes  to  their 
progeny,  who  in  turn  made  further  advances  in  the  direction 
opened  by  their  parents  ;  and  from  year  to  year  the  adapta- 
tion was  more  complete,  the  acclimatisation  more  nearly 
realised. 

But  it  is  evident  that  years  here  represent  generations. 
It  is  only  from  parent  to  offspring,  through  heredity  and 
accumulation,  that  the  living  being  becomes  modified,  and  by 
degrees  harmonises  with  the  conditions  of  life.  When,  how- 
ever, we  are  no  longer  studying  an  animal,  plant,  or  a  bird, 
which  has  the  faculty  of  yearly  reproduction,  but  species  or 
races  of  a  more  tardy  reproduction,  we  must  remember  that 
it  is  necessary  to  reckon  by  generations,  and  not  by  years. 

III.  Such  are  the  data  by  which  we  are  enabled  to  judge 
of  the  attempts  at  acclimatisation  made  by  man  himself  I 
cannot  too  often  repeat  the  fact  that,  in  common  with  or- 
ganised and  living  beings,  we  are  subject  to  all  the  general 
laws  which  govern  life  and  organisation  in  animals  and  plants. 
Our  intelligence  is  unquestionably  of  assistance  to  us  in  our 
struggles  with  nature,  but,  unfortunately,  the  power  which 
we  derive  from  her  is  limited,  and  in  no  case  are  we  placed 
at  greater  disadvantage  than  in  the  increasing  struggle  de- 
manded by  a  considerable  change  in  conditions  of  life.  The 
most  ingenious  efforts  are  then  unable  to  free  man  from 
vicissitudes  more  or  less  analogous  to  those  suffered  by  the 
wheat  of  Sierra  Leone,  the  fowls  at  Cuzco,  and  the  geese  at 
Bogota. 

Wc  must,  then,  almost  always  be  prepared  for  sacrifices, 
the  extent  and  gravity  of  which  will  be  proportionate  to  the 
differences,  as  regards  conditions  of  existence,  between  the 
two  countries,  and  we  must  almost  always  expect  to  lose  a 
certain  number  of  individuals  and  generations.  Everything 
depends  upon  judging  facts  fairly,  not  exaggerating  their  im- 
portance, and  seeing  huw  far  they  justify  a  hope  of  success 
in  spite  of  appearances.  If  the  losses  are  merely  equal  to 
tiiose  I  have  just  mentioned,  or,  better  still,  if  they  are  fewer 
in  number,  wc  may  prophesy  a  favourable  result ;  and,  if  the 


Conditions  of  Acclimatisation.  229 

victory  is  worth  the  price,  we  must  leave  the  rest  to  perse- 
verance and  time. 

IV.  Events  in  Algeria  confirm  these  observations.  After 
tlie  conquest  it  was  everywhere,  as  also  in  France,  a  question 
wliether  it  would  be  possible  to  colonise  the  country  taken 
from  the  Turks  and  Arabs.  Dr.  Knox  declared  most  em- 
phatically that  such  a  colonisation  was  impossible,  and  that 
the  French  would  never  be  able  to  increase  or  even  live  in 
Africa.  It  must  be  confessed  that  this  opinion  found  many 
and  strong  supporters.  After  the  first  few  years  of  occupa- 
tion the  generals,  as  well  as  the  doctors,  were  almost  all  of 
the  same  opinion.  M.  Boudin  supported,  with  distressing 
statistics,  the  views  of  his  colleagues,  Marshal  Bugeaud  and 
Generals  Duvivier  and  Cavaignac. 

Relying  upon  what  I  know  to  have  taken  place  with 
regard  to  birds,  I  did  not  hesitate  to  attack  these  discouraging 
prophecies.  Military  and  civil  mortality  was  in  1815  doubt- 
less much  more  considerable  in  Algeria  than  in  France,  and 
the  number  of  deaths  must  again  have  exceeded  that  of 
births.  But  emigration  was  at  that  time  abundant  and 
continual.  Now,  if  the  influx  of  new  arrivals  filled  the  voids 
caused  by  the  change  in  conditions  of  existence,  it  at  the 
same  time  augmented  the  mortality  by  continually  bringing 
forward  recruits  to  this  war  against  conditions  of  life.  The 
rate  of  deaths  amongst  children  was  almost  double  that  re- 
ported by  French  statistics  ;  but  the  proportion  of  deaths 
was  still  much  less  than  that  among  the  first  geese  at 
Bogota.  Finally,  far  from  having  been  weakened,  the  fer- 
tility of  the  women  had  increased  ;  the  sources  of  life  were 
therefore  much  less  affected  in  this  case  than  upon  the  high 
j)lateaus  of  America. 

From  all  these  considerations,  I  felt  justified  in  concluding 
that  the  acclimatisation  of  the  French  in  Algeria  was  certain 
of  success,  and  Avould  not  require  twenty  generations.  My 
opinion  has  been  corroborated  by  events  much  sooner  than  I 
expected.  The  census  of  1870  showed  in  the  European 
population  of  Algeria   an    increase  of   25,000,  due   almost 


230  The  Ihunan  Species. 

entirely  to  the  superiority  of  the  number  of  births  over  that 
of  deaths.  The  action  of  the  first  generation  born  in  the 
country  began  to  make  itself  felt,  and  from  that  time  the 
result  has  been  still  more  striking.  In  two  or  three  more 
generations  the  French  Creole  will  live  in  Algeria  quite  as 
well  as  his  ancestors  have  lived  in  France. 

There  are,  however,  distinctions  "vvhich  must  be  drawn 
with  regard  to  the  facility  of  acclimatisation  in  Algeria, 
between  the  different  European  races,  and  even  between  the 
inhabitants  of  the  north  and  south  of  France.  The  statistics 
offered  by  MM.  Boudin,  Martin,  and  Foley  show  clearly  that 
the  Spaniards  and  Maltese  stand  the  Algerian  climate  in- 
finitely better  than  the  English,  Belgians,  or  Germans.  Now, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  north  of  France  strongly  resemble  the 
latter  nations  in  race  and  habits.  In  both  these  respects  the 
inhabitants  of  southern  France  are  connected,  on  the  con- 
trary, with  the  inhabitants  of  Malta  and  Spain.  We  might, 
tlierefore,  without  much  fear  of  error,  prophesy  that  the 
latter  had,  either  for  themselves  or  their  descendants,  a 
much  greater  chance  of  surviving  than  the  French  of  Al- 
satian and  Flemish  origin.  Experience  has  again  fully  con- 
firmed these  deductions  of  theory. 

V.  The  information  which  we  derive  from  these  facts 
taking  place,  so  to  speak,  at  our  very  doors,  and  among 
races  with  which  w^e  are  very  closely  connected,  may,  with 
perfect  justice,  be  applied  to  conditions  of  life  more  widely 
•  lifferent  in  character,  to  races  which  are  much  more  distinct 
from  eacl)  other  than  the  French  and  the  Belgians.  Never- 
theless, the  conclusion  so  obtained  would  have  the  same 
value  as  that  drawn  from  a  general  formula,  the  signification 
of  which  changes  with  the  data.  When  the  question  is  one 
of  acclimatisation,  tliese  data  alwaj^s  rise  from  the  two  ele- 
ments mentioned  above  :  conditions  of  race  and  life.  If 
cither  vary,  even  though  it  be  but  slightly  and  within  narrow 
limits,  the  result  is  necessarily  altered,  and  often  in  a  very 
unexpected  manner.  Every  (juestion  of  acclimatisation,  in 
leality  then,  forms  a  separate  problem,  which   often,  again,  is 


Conditio7is  of  Acclimatisation.  231 

subdivided  into  a  numbei'  of  particular  cases,  each  of  which 
demands  a  special  solution.  Without  leaving-  the  French 
colonies,  we  can  quote  on  this  subject  another  most  striking 
example. 

Anthropologists,  as  Avell  as  doctors,  have  often  questioned 
the  po.ssibility  of  the  acclimatisation  of  Europeans  in  the 
archipelagoes  of  the  great  Mexican  Gulf,  which,  through 
yellow  fever  and  the  influences  by  which  it  is  developed,  is 
particularly  fatal  to  him.  At  first  sight,  it  is  true,  a  number 
of  general  facts  seem  to  leave  no  doubt  that  the  answer 
should  be  in  the  affirmative.  Since  the  discovery  of  America 
Europeans  have  alwaj-s  occupied  these  islands,  and  the  White 
race,  bringing  with  it  the  Negro,  have  everywhere  replaced 
the  Caribean  race.  In  answer  to  this  statement,  it  has 
been  argued  that  these  islands  are  one  of  the  most  favourite 
parts  of  the  globe  for  emigration,  and  that  by  this  means 
alone  a  population  is  maintained,  which,  if  left  to  itself, 
would  soon  disappear.  Calculations  are  opposed  to  calcula- 
tions, statistics  to  statistics,  and  were  we  to  approach  the 
subject  without  analysing  facts,  the  question  would  appear 
most  obscure. 

To  solve  it  in  those  cases  only  in  which  France  is  inte- 
rested, we  will  speak  only  of  Guadeloupe  and  Martinique. 
We  know  that  these  islands  were  colonised  by  the  French 
only  23.3  years  ago.  Even  allowing  the  very  liberal  ratio  of 
lour  generations  to  the  century,  we  find  that,  at  the  most, 
ten  generations  have  elapsed  in  these  islands,  the  climate  of 
which  is  of  all  others  the  most  fatal  to  Europeans.  Now, 
more  than  twenty  generations  were  necessary  to  acclimatise 
the  geese  at  Bogota.  The  experiment,  therefore,  is  not  com- 
plete. Nevertheless,  in  presence  of  the  facts  of  longevity 
and  fecundity  attested  by  M.  Simonot,  wo  do  not  hesitate  to 
share  his  opinions.  Although  the  French  race  may  not  yet 
be  acclimatised  in  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe,  we  may  be 
certain  that  it  soon  will  be. 

It  is  no  less  true  that  statistics  attest  an  excess  of  deaths 
over  births.  The  information  which  they  furnish  has,  how- 
U 


232  The  Human  Species. 

ever,  been  presented  without  distinction.  Old  and  new 
Creoles  have  been  mixed  together,  as  well  as  the  latest 
emigrants,  in  a  common  estimate.  Elements,  which  are 
fundamentally  very  different  have  thus  been  confounded. 
For  a  work  of  this  kind  to  have  any  real  value,  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  divide  the  population  into  classes 
determined  by  the  time  of  emigration,  and  to  estimate  the 
length  of  time  itself  by  the  number  of  generations.  By 
proceeding  in  this  manner,  we  shall  undoubtedly  establish 
in  the  mortality  of  groups  striking  differences,  more  or  less 
analogous  to  those  displayed  by  the  generations  of  plants  and 
animals  transported  into  Africa  or  America. 

The  statistics  in  question  are  still  further  vitiated  by  a 
fault,  which  is  completely  exposed  by  M.  Walther  in  his 
work  upon  Guadeloupe.  He,  also,  has  drawn  up  tables  of 
mortality  ;  only,  instead  of  taking  the  population  en  masse, 
he  studied  each  district  separately.  Very  significant  dif- 
ferences then  made  their  appearance.  Considered  as  a  whole 
the  population  of  Guadeloupe  offers  an  annual  excess  of  04G 
deaths  over  births,  that  is  to  say,  nearly  one-half  per  cent. 
In  presence  of  these  facts,  the  statisticians  whose  views  I 
am  attacking,  would  certainly  have  concluded  that  the 
European  is  not  acclimatised  in  Guadeloupe,  and  have 
declared,  that,  after  a  certain  time,  which  might  easily  be 
calculated,  this  colonial  population  would  become  extinct, 
if  the  voids  were  not  incessantly  filled  by  fresh  immigrants. 

When,  however,  we  examine  the  table  of  mortality  taken 
by  districts,  we  arrive  at  very  different  conclusions.  These 
districts  number  thirty-one.  Now,  in  fifteen  the  number  of 
births  is  greater  than  that  of  deaths.  In  the  little  island  of 
Marie-Cialanto  this  is  the  case  in  two  districts  out  of  three. 
Thus,  the  terrible  calculations  of  the  mean  mortality  are  due 
entirely  to  the  exaggeration  of  mortality  in  certain  districts, 
while  the  Kiiropcan  lias  become  nfcliniatiscd  in  the  (others. 

Tlie  tables  (;f  mortality  drawn  up  in  Algeria  by  M.  Boudin 
present  analogous  facts.  Out  ol'  sixty-nine  localities,  fifty- 
five  have  shown,  since  18'>7,  an  excess  <if  l)irllis  over  deaths. 


Conditions  of  Acclimatisation. 


jj 


The  general  result  obtained  by  M.  Wultlier  may  be  thus 
explained.  The  French  race  is  acclimatised  iu  Guadeloupe 
in  fifteen  localities,  but  not  in  the  remaining  sixteen.  Or 
these  two  statements,  the  first  should  be  considered  as 
definitely  proved ;  the  second  requires  confirmation,  for  a 
closer  examination  of  the  populations  of  the  most  unhealthy 
tlistricts,  and  a  study  of  them  in  classes,  is  still  reqiiired. 

However  this  may  be,  every  unprejudiced  person  will 
acknowledge  that  we  can  no  longer  question  the  fact  of 
acclimatisation  in  Guadeloupe  as  a  whole.  It  should  now 
oidy  be  a  question  of  acclimatisation  at  Basse  terra,  at 
Polnte-d-Pltre,  at  Pointe-Noire,  etc. 

VI.  The  French  Antilles,  as  also  the  greater  number  of 
the  sister  iskuuls,  are  the  scene  of  valuable  experiments  upon 
the  aptitude  of  dififerent  human  races  to  stand  this  excep- 
tional climate,  which  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  to  overcome. 
The  Negro  was  carried  there  by  force  very  shortly  after  the 
occupation  of  the  islands  by  the  Whites,  and  has  lived  there 
in  a  state  of  slavery  till  within  the  last  few  years.  As  the 
condition  of  the  parents  was  inherited  by  the  children,  there 
is  little  room  for  doubt,  but  that  after  a  "iven  time  the  local 
multiplication  of  the  Blacks  would  have  sufficed  for  all  the 
wants  of  agriculture  and  industry,  if  the  race  had  become 
acclimatised.  The  incessant  activity  of  the  slave  trade, 
seems  to  show  that  the  number  of  deaths  must  have  greatly 
exceeded  that  of  births.  There  appears  to  be  no  doubt  as  to 
the  truth  of  the  fact  for  the  island  of  Cuba  or  for  Jamaica, 
General  TuUoch,  struck  by  the  mortality  of  the  Negi-oes  in  the 
English  Antilles,  has  not  hesitated  to  declare  that  if  the 
trade  were  once  suppressed,  the  whole  race  woidd  disappear 
in  these  islands  before  the  close  of  a  century.  The  researches 
of  M.  Boudin  justify  us  in  regarding  this  assertion  as  an 
exaggeration,  at  least  as  regards  the  French  possessions. 

Neither  the  English  nor  the  French  author  has,  however, 
taken  into  consideration  a  circumstance,  the  importance  of 
which  cannot  be  denied.  I  alhule  to  the  conditions  imposed 
upon  the  Negro  by  slavery.     It  is  clear  that  the  character 


234  The  Human  Species. 

and  conduct  of  the  master  played  an  important  part  in  the 
probability  of  the  life  or  death  of  the  slave.  "Without  feeling 
himself  to  be,  and  'without  being  inhuman,  the  master  might 
demand  more  labour  from  him  than  his  nature  could  support, 
or  violate  those  instincts,  the  free  play  of  which  is  necessary 
to  health.  This  was  certainly  the  case  in  Cuba,  where  it  was 
the  general  practice  to  get  as  much  out  of  the  slaves  as 
possible,  thus  creating  the  necessity  for  more  frequent  re- 
nesval.  We  have  here,  doubtless,  one  of  those  causes  by 
which  the  mortality  of  a  race,  better  fitted  than  ours  for 
intertropical  climates,  is  so  immoderately  increased.  Facts 
seem  to  justify  these  conjectures.  "Since  the  abolition  of 
slavery,"  says  M.  Elisde  Reclus,  "  the  Negro  population  has 
been  on  the  increase  in  the  English  islands. 

However  singular  this  fact  may  appear  to  some  anthropo- 
logists, it  is  onl}'-  a  repetition  of  what  took  place  in  Brazil. 
There  again,  it  was  said,  that  the  slave  trade  alone  main- 
tained a  black  population,  which  was  destined  to  diminish 
and  disappear  as  soon  as  this  enforced  immigration  should 
cease.  Authentic  documents  show  that  the  opposite  has 
taken  place.  The  slave  trade  was  abolished  long  before 
slavery  in  this  great  Empire.  For  many  years  the  pro- 
prietors, being  unable  to  purchase  fresh  slaves,  took  care  of 
tiiose  in  their  possession,  and  from  that  time  the  Negroes 
have  multiplied.  Thus  it  was  that  during  the  period  in 
which  tlie  missionaries  of  the  Jesuits  flourished,  that  portion 
of  the  black  race  in  which  they  were  interested  was  observed 
to  increase  in  an  extraordinary  manner,  whilst  in  the  rich 
haciendas,  where  it  was  uncarcd  for  and  overworked,  it 
dwindled  away. 

By  the  side  of  the  Negro  Creole,  there  are  now  in  the 
French  Antilles  labourers  engaged  more  or  less  vohmtarily 
from  the  same  coasts  of  Africa,  representatives  of  the  Semetic 
white  race  from  Madeira,  Chinese  of  yellow  race,  and  Indian 
coolies,  who  are  almost  all  dravidian,  and  consequently  a  cross 
between  the  black  and  the  yellow.  It  will  be  interesting  at 
some  future  time,  to  show   what  resistance  each    of  these 


Conditions  of  Acclimatisation.  235 

nations  has  offered  to  the  terrible  climate  they  are  con- 
fioBting.  The  experiment  is,  at  present,  only  begun. 
Nevertheless  M.  Walther  has  already  obtained  some  inte- 
resting data  at  Guadeloupe.  The  mean  annual  mortality  of 
the  Creoles  is  3-28  per  100 ;  that  of  immigrants,  966  for  the 
Chinese  ;  7*68  for  Negroes ;  7*12  for  Hindoos  ;  and  580  for  the 
natives  of  Madeira.  Unfortunately,  the  statistics  are  doubt- 
ful, and  differ  from  those  which  M.  Du  Hailly  has  given  for 
Martinique.  They  must,  however,  both  be  recorded  as  the 
starting-point  for  new  study.  There  is,  moreover,  no  cause 
for  despair.  It  is  clear,  for  example,  that  the  natives  of 
^ladeira  will  very  quickly  become  acclimatised  in  Guade- 
loupe, as  is  already  the  case  in  Cuba,  and  the  much  more 
serious  mortality  of  the  Negro,  Chinese,  and  Hindoo  races 
does  not  prove  the  impossibility  of  their  ever  inhabiting  these 
islands. 

VII.  The  conditions  of  life  and  the  nature  of  the  race  are 
not  all  in  the  numerous  problems  raised  by  acclimatisation. 
Man,  even  individually,  brings  his  special  elements  to  bear 
upon  it.  The  savage  and  the  modern  European  are  placed, 
by  the  mere  fact  of  the  social  differences  which  separate 
them,  in  conditions  often  opposite,  and  not  always  in  favour 
of  the  latter. 

Even  the  marvels  of  modern  industrv,  whilst  facilitatina 
immigi-ation  into  distant  lands,  make  it  more  dangerous. 
Railways  and  steamers  have  reduced  the  longest  journeys  to 
a  mere  nothing.  Lands,  which  it  took  our  ancestoi-s  cen- 
turies to  people,  distances  which  our  own  fathers  could  only 
travel  over  in  several  months,  are  accomplished  by  us  in  a 
few  days.  AVe  have  here,  then,  yet  another  to  be  added 
to  the  many  difficulties  of  acclimatisation.  It  is  a  common 
thing  in  Paris  to  hear  men  complain  of  the  effects  of  a  mere 
journey  from  Algiers.  The  rapidity  of  the  transit  gives  a 
shock  to  the  organisation,  although  tending  to  replace  it 
under  its  natural  conditions  of  life.  The  shock  is  necessarily 
greater  when  the  journey  is  made  in  the  other  direction,  and 
we  go  against  our  physical  habits,  instead   of  returning  to 


236  The  Human  Species. 

them.  And,  when  after  a  few  daj-s'  voyage,  instead  of 
Algiers,  we  land  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  or  the  Antilles,  the  shock 
must  be  great  indeed. 

Modern  civilisation  is  also  answerable  to  a  great  extent  for 
the  losses  involved  by  every  settlement  in  a  climate  differing 
too  widely  from  our  own.  By  reason  of  the  security  with 
which  she  surrounds  the  poor  as  well  as  the  rich,  of  the  at 
least  relative  ease  which  is  enjoyed  by  all  classes  of  society, 
we  are  little  prepared  for  the  struggle  for  existence.  Without 
going  so  far  back  as  primitive  man  or  the  Aryans,  let  us 
simply  call  to  mind  Balbao,  Pizarro,  Cortez,  Soto,  Monbars, 
and  their  rough  companions  ;  can  the  present  generation  offer 
such  a  resistance  as  theirs  ? 

It  is  not,  however,  by  its  luxuries  only  that  civilisation 
renders  us  unfit  tp  confront  the  chances  of  acclimatisation. 
It  is  .also,  and  principally,  by  the  vices  which  too  often 
accompany  it.  W.  Bolot,  who  Avas  in  charge  of  a  number  of 
men  employed  for  the  construction  of  a  pier  at  Grand 
Bassam,  said  to  Captain  Vallon:  "A  Sunday  will  put  more 
of  my  men  in  the  hospital,  than  three  days  of  work  in  the 
fidl  heat  of  the  sun."  This  was  because  Sunday  was  given 
up  to  debauchery. 

Here,  again,  is  a  fact  forming,  so  to  speak,  an  experiment 
such  as  might  have  been  imagined  by  a  physiologist.  The 
Isle  of  Bourbon  passes  for  one  of  those  disastrous  climates  to 
which  the  European  cannot  become  acclimatised.  The  tables 
of  mortality  which  relate  to  the  whole  population  do,  in 
liict,  show  that  the  deaths  exceed  the  births  to  a  formidable 
extent.  This  is,  however,  another  of  those  sweeping  resvdts, 
into  which  we  must  inquire  if  we  wish  to  understand  its  true 
meaning. 

The  Whites  of  Bourljon  form,  in  reality,  two  classes,  or 
rather  two  races,  distinct  in  their  manners  and  customs. 
The  former  includes  the  population  of  towns  and  large 
settlements,  who  lead  the  ordinary  life  of  colonists,  and 
especially  avoid  agricultural  labour,  considered  by  Creoles  as 
derrradinir  as  well  as  fatal.     The   latter  includes  the  Mean 


Conditions  of  Accliniaiisation.  237 

'SVldtes,  descendants  of  the  original  colonists,  ^Yho,  too  poor 
to  buy  slaves,  were  forced  to  cultivate  the  land  "with  their 
own  hands. 

Now,  of  these  two  classes  of  colonists,  it  is  the  former 
alone  which  supply  the  mortality  to  which  attention  is  so 
often  drawn.  The  Mean  Whites  live  as  their  fathers  lived  ; 
they  inhabit  and  cultivate  the  less  fertile  districts  of  the 
island.  Far  from  having  deteriorated,  their  race  has  im- 
proved, and  the  women,  in  particular,  are  remarkable  for 
beauty  of  form  and  feature.  The  race  maintains  itself  per- 
fectly, and  seems  to  be  on  the  increase.  Crossing,  moreover, 
lias  no  influence  in  the  matter,  for  the  Mean  White,  proud 
of  the  purity  of  blood  which  constitutes  his  nobility,  will  not, 
at  any  price,  ally  himself  with  the  Negro  or  Coolie. 

Thus  at  Bourbon,  indolence,  and  the  habits  which  it 
involves,  destroy  the  rich,  and  those  who  try  to  imitate 
them,  while  the  poor  become  acclimatised  through  sobriety, 
purity  of  manners,  and  a  moderate  amount  of  work.  From 
the  latter,  anthropologists  and  all  the  world  may  learn  a 
lesson  of  grave  importance,  at  once  scientific  and  moral. 

VIII.  Finally,  acclimatisation  and  naturalisation  are  as 
universal  in  history  as  migration,  of  which  they  are  the 
consequence.  We  see  them  daily  accomplished  under  our 
very  eyes,  and  with  the  most  different  races,  though  almost 
invariably  at  the  price  of  human  life.  In  many  places,  they 
are  purchased  very  cheaply,  so  much  so,  that  study  alone 
teaches  us  that  new  conditions  of  life  in  no  case  entirely  lose 
their  rights.  In  others,  specially  in  countries  characterised 
by  an  extreme  climate,  they  involve  considerable  losses. 
J^ut  there  is  nothing  to  authorise  us  to  deny  the  existence  of 
acclimatisation  and  naturalisation.  Everything,  on  the  con- 
trary, proves  that  if  they  are  willing  to  submit  to  the 
necessary  sacrifices,  all  human  races  may  live  and  prosper  in 
almost  every  climate  which  is  not  vitiated  by  accidental 
causes. 

IX.  In  this  case,  as  in  many  others,  the  present  explains 
the  past,  whick  also  contributes  its   share  of  information. 


238  TJie  Human  Species. 

Relying  upon  our  own  daily  experience,  and  upon  facts 
borrowed  from  history,  Ave  can  form  a  general  idea  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  world  has  been  peopled. 

The  history  of  the  Aryan  race  alone,  gives  us,  so  to  speak, 
that  of  the  whole  species.  We  see  it  starting  from  the  Bolor, 
and  Hindoo  Koh,  from  the  Eeriene  Voedjo,  where  the  summer 
only  lasted  two  months,  descending  into  Bokhara,  and  over- 
running Persia  and  Cabul  before  reaching  the  basin  of  the 
Indus.  Eleven  stations  mark  this  route  followed  by  the 
Aryans  before  reaching  the  Ganges.  We  tbere  find  them 
again  slowly  advancing,  though  all  the  time  sending  forth  as 
a  vanguard,  those  j)ioviS  lieroes,  who  slew  the  Rakchassas, 
and  prepared  the  way  for  conquests.  The  race  is  now  in  the 
tropics  in  India,  in  the  Polar  circle  in  Greenland,  Avhere  the 
Norwegians  and  Danes  have  replaced  the  Sea-Kings ;  it 
spreads  over  an  immense  region  of  more  or  less  temperate 
climate,  and  possesses  colonies  in  every  part  of  the  world. 

The  human  species  must  have  made  a  boginriing  like  the 
Aryans.  Upon  leaving  their  centre  of  creation,  it  was  by 
slow  stages,  that  the  primitive  colonists,  ancestors  of  all 
existing  races,  marched  forth  to  the  conquest  of  the  un- 
inhabited world.  They  thus  accustomed  themselves  to  the 
different  conditions  of  existence  imposed  upon  them  by  the 
north,  the  south,  the  cast,  or  the  west,  cold  or  heat,  plain  or 
mountain.  Diverging  in  every  direction,  and  meeting  with 
different  conditions  of  life,  they  gradually  establisheil  a 
harmony  between  themselves  and  each  one  pf  them.  Thus 
acclimatisation,  advancing  at  the  same  rate  as  geographical 
concniest,  was  less  fatal.  The  struggle,  however,  though 
mitigated  indeed  by  the  slowness  of  the  advance,  still  existed, 
and  many  pioneers  must  have  fallen  upon  the  route.  But 
the  survivors  had  oidy  nature  to  face,  and,  thon^fore,  suc- 
ceeded, and  ])eopled  the  world. 


BOOK  vn. 

PRDIITIVE    .^lAX.— FORMATION    OF    THE   HUMAN 
RACES. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

PlllMITIVE   MAX. 


I.  The  primitive  type  of  the  human  species  must  neces- 
sarily have  been  effaced,  and  have  disappeared.  The  enforced 
migrations,  and  the  actions  of  cHmate,  must  of  themselves 
have  produced  this  result.  Man  has  passed  through  two 
geological  epochs  ;  perhaps  his  centre  of  appearance  is  no 
longer  in  existence;  at  any  rate,  the  conditions  are  very 
different  to  those  prevailing  when  humanity  began  its 
existence.  When  everything  was  changing  round  him,  man 
could  not  avoid  being  changed  also.  Crossing,  also,  has 
certainly  played  its  part  in  this  transformation.  I  shall 
shortly  return  to  these  different  points  which  I  only  allude 
to  here. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  we  shall  sec  that  the  skull  of  the 
most  ancient  Quaternary  race  is  repeated  not  only  in  some 
Australian  tribes,  but  in  Europe,  and  in  men  who  have 
played  an  important  part  among  their  fellow-countrymen. 
The  other  races  of  the  same  epoch,  judging  from  the  skull, 
have  many  representatives  atnongst  us.  They  have,  never- 
theless, passed  through  one  of  the  two  geological  revolutions, 
which  separates  us  from  oui*  original  stock.  It  is  then  not 
impossible  that  the  latter  may  have  transmitted  to  a  certain 


240  TJie  Unman  Species. 

number  of  men,  perhaps  scattered  in  time  and  space,  at  least 
a  part  of  its  characters. 

Unfortunately,  we  do  not  know  where  to  seek  for  repro- 
ductions, bearing  more  or  less  resemblance  to  the  primitive 
type  ;  and,  for  want  of  information  it  would  be  impossible  to 
recofjnise  them  as  such,  if  we  were  to  meet  with  them. 
Here,  therefore,  observation  alone  can  furni.sh  no  data.  But, 
when  it  is  aided  by  physiology,  some  conjectures  are  pos- 
sible. 

II.  AVe  know  that  among  animals  atavism  often  causes 
the  reappearance  of  ancestral  characters,  even  when  a  care- 
ful selection  has  acted  upon  hundreds  of  generations.  The 
silkworms  of  the  Ccvennes  which  yield  white  cocoons,  and 
the  black  sheep  of  Spain  furnish  examples.  In  man,  where 
selection  does  not  exist,  such  facts  would  be  much  more 
likely  to  be  produced.  Some  characters  of  our  first  ancestors 
ought  to  appear  in  isolated  cases  or  collectively  in  all  human 
races ;  perhaps,  there  arc  some  Avhich  have  been  preserved 
in  one  or  more  group.s.  Consequently,  by  searching  for 
them,  and  classifying  tho.se  which  appear  iu  a  more  or  less 
erratic  manner  among  races  which  are  most  dissimilar  in  all 
other  respects,  we  shall  probably  be  able  to  form  a  partial 
reproduction  of  the  primitive  human  typo. 

In  this  respect,  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  attaching  a  real 
importance  to  the  prognathism  of  the  upper  jaw.  This 
anatomical  feature  is  very  pronounced  in  almost  all  Negro 
races :  it  is  also  strongly  marked  in  certain  Yellow  races. 
It  is  considerably  diminished  among  Whites  :  but,  nevcrthe- 
les.s,  it  appears  at  times  almo.st  as  strongly  marked  as  in  the 
two  other  groups:  it  exi.sted  in  Q\iaternary  man.  Kverything 
seems  to  indicate  that  it  must  have  been  as  strongly 
developed  in  our  first  ancestors. 

Phenomena  of  atavism  acting  on  tlie  colouring  are  of 
freqticnt  occujTencc  among  animals. 

They  are  equally  i)revalent  iu  the  human  species.  This 
C(->nsideration  cau.ses  me  to  attach  real  importance  to  the 
opinion  of  M.  dc  Salles,  who  attributes  red  hair  to  the  earliest 


Primitive  Man.  241 

null.  In  fjict,  among  all  human  races,  individuals  have  been 
noticed  whose  hair  more  or  less  approaches  to  this  tint. 

The  experiments  of  Darwin  upon  the  efifects  of  crossing 
l)etween  very  different  races  of  pigeons  led  to  the  same  con- 
clusion. He  found  that  the  crossings  resulted  in  the  reap- 
pearance of  certain  peculiarities  of  colour  in  the  mongrels, 
which  were  peculiar  to  the  original  species,  and  which  had 
disappeared  in  tiie  two  parent  races.  Now  in  our  colonies 
the  offspring  of  a  Mulatto  and  a  White  frequently  has  red 
hair.  In  Europe  also,  M.  Hamy  has  remarked  that  children 
are  born  with  red  hair,  when  one  of  the  parents  is  decidedly 
dark  and  the  other  decidedly  fair.  In  all  cases  of  this  nature, 
we  should  say  that  the  primitive  character  reasserts  itself, 
being  accidentally  acquired  by  the  reciprocal  neutralisation 
of  opposed  ethnical  characters. 

When  examined  under  the  microscope,  the  cutaneous  pig- 
ment which  gives  the  human  body  its  characteristic  colour, 
doubtless  shows  different  tints,  but  yellow  is  always  present 
as  a  colouring  element.  If  we  apply  to  man  the  laws  which 
Isidore  Gcoftroy  has  deduced  from  his  observations  upon 
animals,  we  are  led  to  conclude  that  this  colour  originally 
predominated.  When  the  White  is  crossed  with  the  Negro, 
the  yellow  colouring  element  at  once  asserts  itself  and  gone- 
rally  appears  to  predominate.  In  the  colonies  the  general 
term  of  yellows  is  sometimes  given  to  mulattos.  This  result 
is  again  explained  by  the  experiments  of  Darwin ;  and  the 
conclusion  is  admissible  that  the  original  colour  of  man  more 
or  less  approximated  to  this  tint. 

Certain  facts  which  have  been  observed  among  Negroes 
seem  also  to  confirm  this  conclusion.  Among  the  most 
strongly  characterised  peoples  belonging  to  this  type,  the 
appearance  has  been  noticed  of  individuals  of  a  lighter 
.  olour,  sometimes  almost  resembling  the  Whites  in  this 
respect,  sometimes  tending  more  or  less  to  yellow,  without 
]>rcsenting  any  of  the  phenomena  of  tcratological  albinij^m. 
These  individual  peculiarities  of  colour  may  be  attributed  to 
atavism.     Now  amons:  no  Avhite  or  vellow  race  have  facts 


242  The  Human  Species. 

becu  noticed  wliich  can  be  regarded  as  reciprocal  to  the 
preceding. 

Nothing  therefore  authorises  us  to  regard  the  Negro  race 
as  having  preceded  the  other  two  ;  and,  on  the  contrar}',  the" 
contrast  which  I  have  just  pointed  out  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  ancestors  of  the  negro  were  a  race  of  a  much  lighter 
colour. 

On  the  other  hand,  ■we  know  that  the  Aryan  race  is  the 
latest.  The  question  of  priority  thus  lies  between  the  Semitic, 
the  Allophylian,  and  the  group  of  yellow  races.  What  I  have 
said  above  of  the  fundamental  colour  being  present  as  an 
clement  in  the  colour  of  all  races,  and  the  phenomena  of 
cro.ssing,  point  with  some  probability  in  favour  of  the  latter. 

Philology  seems  to  confirm  this  view.  Monosyllabic  lan- 
guages, which  imply  the  first  attempts  at  human  speech,  only 
exist  among  the  yellow  races.  All  the  Negro  races  and  the 
Allophylian  "Whites  speak  agglutinative  languages,  which 
answer  to  the  second  form  which  man  gave  to  the  expression 
of  his  thought.s.  Aryans  and  Semites  both  have  inflectional 
langtingcs. 

riiilulogy  then  seems  to  lead  to  the  same  conclusion  as 
pliysiology,  and  even  to  give  an  appearance  of  greater  proba- 
bility to  these  conjectures,  •which  I  only  give  for  what  they 
are  worth. 

III.  We  know  nothing  of  primitive  man  ;  we  acknowledge 
that,  from  want  of  information,  it  woulil  be  impossible  to 
recognise  him.  All  that  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge 
allows  us  to  say  is  that,  according  to  all  appearance  he  ought 
to  be  characterised  by  a  certain  amount  of  prt>gnathism,  and 
have  ncitln-r  a  black  skin  nor  woolly  hair.  It  is  also  fairly 
probable  that  his  colour  would  resemble  that  of  the  yellow 
races,  and  his  hair  be  more  or  less  red.  Finally  everything 
tcnd.s  to  the  conclusion  that  the  language  of  our  earliest 
aiircstors  wiLS  a  more  or  less  pronounced  monosyllabic  one. 

These  arc  only  conjectures,  and  they  amount  to  but  little, 
liut  this  little  is  founded  upon  experiment  and  observation. 

\\.   We  can   also  only  form  very  vague  conjectures  uj^on 


Primilhe  Man.  243 

the  degree  of  intellectual  development  which  man  exhibited 
at  liis  birth  and  during  his  first  generations.  At  any  rate  it 
is  possible  to  believe  that  he  did  not  enter  upon  the  scene  of 
tlie  world  with  innate  knowledge,  and  the  instinctive  indus- 
tries which  belong  to  animals.  Still  less  did  he  appear  in  a 
fully  civilised  state  "mature  in  body  and  mind"  as  thinks 
the  Comte  Eusebe  de  Salles.  All  traditions  point  to  a  period 
when  human  knowledge  was  very  small,  when  man  was 
ignorant  of  industries,  to  our  eyes  very  elementary,  and  which 
we  see  appear  in  succession.  Upon  this  point  the  Bible 
anrrces  with  classical  mvtholosfv.  The  Hebrews  have  their 
Tubal  Cain,  and  the  Greeks  their  Triptolemos.  Prehistoric 
studies  confirm  this  progressive  development  in  Western 
Europe  upon  every  point.  Tertiary  industries  precede  qua- 
ternary. The  whole  history  of  races  seems  to  me  to  give,  at 
least  in  part,  a  representation  of  that  of  the  Species ;  and 
our  thoughts  go  back  almost  irresistibly  to  the  time  when 
man  found  himself  face  to  ftice  with  creation,  armed  solely 
with  the  aptitudes  which  were  destined  to  undergo  such  a 
marvellous  development. 

Thanks  to  these  aptitudes,  at  a  very  early  period  he  satis- 
fied at  least  the  first  wants  of  existence.  The  miocene  man 
of  La  Beauce  already  knew  the  use  of  fire  and  worked  flint. 
However  rough  and  rudimentary  his  instruments  may  have 
been,  he  had  even  then  an  industry,  and  according  to  all  ap- 
pearance fed  partly  upon  cooked  food.  The  man  of  Saint- 
Prcst,  with  his  small  lozenge-shaped  arrow-heads,  worked  only 
on  one  side,  with  his  rough  liatchets,  could  undoubtedly  attack 
and  kill  the  great  contemporary  mammalia.  He  possessed 
scrapers  which  he  used  to  prepare  their  skins  with,  and  cnd-s, 
which  perhaps  served  as  needles.  From  this  distant  period, 
upon  which  science  has  thrown  as  yet  but  little  light,  man 
reveals  his  existence  by  two  great  facts,  and  shows  his  supe- 
riority to  the  whole  animal  creation. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

FORMATION   OF   HUMAN  KACES   UNDER  THE   SOLE  INFLU- 
ENCE  OF   CONDITIONS   OF   LIFE   AND   HEREDITY. 

I.  The  first  mcu  who  peopled  the  ceutre  of  human  appear- 
ance must  at  first  have  differed  from  each  other  only  in  indi- 
vidual features.  At  their  beginning  and  during  an  indefinite 
lapse  of  time,  mankind  could  only  have  been  homogeneous, 
as  is  every  animal  and  vegetable  species  which  is  restricted 
to  an  area  of  small  extent. 

At  the  present  time,  we  find  mankind  composed  of  nume- 
rous grou|)s,  which  have  peculiar  characters,  and  constitute 
so  many  distinct  races.  How  liave  these  races  originated  ? 
and  how  have  they  grown  and  multiplied? 

To  give  a  definite  re[)ly  to  these  qtiestions,  by  going  back 
from  recent  effects  to  first  causes,  is  still  impossible,  and  per- 
hap.s  will  always  be  so.  Nevertheless,  science  may  even  now 
a|tpri»ach  the  general  aspects  of  the  problem.  We  arc  well 
ac<|uainted  with  the  circumstances  under  which  varieties 
originate  and  races  are  fijinud  among  phmts  and  animals  : 
we  have  established  in  man  tiie  occuirence  of  a  number  of 
phenomena,  which  are  in  this  resj)ect  identical,  or  very 
similar  to  those  exhibited  by  the  two  inferior  kingdoms.  We 
are  therefore  clearly  authorised  to  apply  inferences  drawn 
from  thorn  to  ourselves,  connecting  particular  with  general 
facts.  This  study  is  instructive  in  many  respects.  Unfor- 
tunately, we  cannot  fully  enter  upon  it  here  ;  we  can  only 
select  some  farts  in  the  history  of  anin)als  to  justify  our 
conclusions. 

II.  The  j»rol)Iiin  of  the  formation  of  human  races  pi'escnts 
two  very  distinct  ca.'-cs.     Man  at  first  was  subject  to  the  sole 


Action  of  Conditions  of  Life  and  Heredity.    245 

iiction  of  natural  modifying  agents.  Under  this  itifUicnce 
jnwe  races  were  formed.  When  these  races  came  in  contact, 
they  were  crossed ;  this  resulted  in  the  formation  of  mixed 
races.  Witlioiit  being  antagonistic  to  tlic  natural  forces, 
crossing  modifies  them  by  its  peculiar  piienomena,  and  some- 
times masks  their  manifestations.  The  two  cases,  there- 
fore, require  separate  examination.  We  will  begin  with  the 
first. 

III.  Every  organic  species  considered  as  a  whole  appears 
to  be  subjected  to  the  action  of  two  forces,  one  of  which  tends 
to  maintain  and  the  other  to  modify  its  characters.  To 
what  cause  can  this  double  action  be  referred  1  This  is  a 
question  put  by  the  greatest  thinkers  and  the  most  eminent 
physiologists,  from  Aristotle  and  Hippocrates  to  Burdach  and 
J.  Mliller. 

It  is  not  the  resemblances  existing  betsveen  the  members 
of  the  same  species,  or  between  the  members  of  one  family, 
which  perplex  philosophers  :  all  agree  in  referring  them  to 
lirredity.  The  problem  lies  rather  in  the  differences.  Not 
only  in  the  considerable  differences  which  are  established 
between  races  ;  but  more  especially  in  the  shades  constituting 
the  individual  traits  which  distinguish  father  from  son,  or 
brother  from  bnjthcr.  This  is  in  n.'ality  the  fundamental 
difficulty,  and  many  hyjwthescs  have  been  propo.sed  for  its 
solution.  Prosper  Lucas,  after  having  discussed  them  sepa- 
rately, reganled  them  all  as  insufficient,  and  believed  that, 
side  by  side  with  heredity,  which  maintains  types,  we  ought 
to  admit  a  special  force,  iniuitcncss  {linneite)  which  diver- 
sifies them. 

We  can,  however,  account  for  the  double  tendency  ex- 
hibited by  living  beings,  without  having  recourse  to  a  new 
force.  For  this  purpo.se  it  is  sufficient  to  push  the  analysis 
of  phenomena  a  little  further  than  is  customary,  and  to 
obtain  a  clear  idea  of  the  part  played  by  the  conditions  0/ 
life  {hiilieu)  and  heredity.  As  h,  general  rule  an  action  is 
attributed  to  the  first,  which  everywhere  and  at  all  times  is 
a  modifying  one,  and  to  the  second   a  purely  conservative 


246  The  Htinian  Species. 

action.  Now  it  may  be  easily  shown  that  this  is  not  the 
case  ;  and  that  each  of  these  causes  acts  in  an  inverse  manner 
according  to  circumstances. 

IV.  By  virtue  of  the  laws  of  heredity,  the  father  and 
mother  tend  equally  to  transmit  to  their  offspring  their  own 
character.  However  similar  they  may  be  supposed  to  be, 
there  are  always  some  differences  between  them  ;  and  the 
nature  of  the  new  being  is  necessarily  a  compromise  between 
two  different  tendencies.  The  son  cannot,  therefore,  always 
resemble  his  father  exactly.  In  him  the  characters  coonmon 
to  both  parents  will  easily  be  exaggerated  ;  the  opposite 
characters  will  be  neutralised ;  and  the  different  characters 
will  produce  a  resultant,  as  distinct  from  the  two  components 
as  green  is  from  yellow  and  blue.  Thus  even  by  virtue  of 
its  own  tendencies,  and  in  consequence  of  the  enforced  co- 
operation of  the  sexes,  direct  and  immediate  heredity 
becomes,  in  some  respects,  a  cause  of  variation. 

Mediate  and  indirect  heredity,  justly  compared  by  Bur- 
dach  to  geneagenetic  phenomena,  as  well  as  atavism,  which 
suddenly  reproduces  with  great  exactness  the  characters  of 
an  ancestor,  sometimes  after  hundreds  of  generations,  have 
certainly  considerable  influence  in  the  variation  of  individual 
traits,  and  in  the  differences  which  distinguish  parents  from 
their  children. 

Their  action,  added  to  that  of  direct  heredity,  is  sufficient 
to  explain  the  appearance  of  certain  varieties,  without 
appealing  to  innateness. 

V.  But  the  hereditary  force,  although  it  is  manifested  from 
one  genei'ation  to  another,  or  through  several  generations,  is 
always  influenced  by  the  conditions  of  life  (milieu),  and  this 
has  evidently  greater  ferce. 

This  term  ought  to  be  taken  in  a  much  more  general  sense 
than  is  usually  the  case.  Buffon  himself  only  took  into 
account  climate,  varying  quantities  of  food,  and  the  hardships 
of  servitude,  when  he  was  ticating  of  domestic  animals.  I 
understand  by  the  conditions  of  life  something  much  more 
complex.     They  comprehend  the  sum  of  all  the  conditions 


Action  of  Conditions  of  Life  and  Heredity .    247 

under  whose  sway  a  plant,  an  animal,  or  man,  is  formed  and 
grows  as  germ,  embryo,  youth,  and  adult.  To  make  a  selec- 
tion from  these  conditions,  to  admit  some  and  take  them  into 
consideration,  to  reject  and  exclude  the  rest,  is  evidently  an 
entirely  arbitrary  procedure.  The  consideration  of  only  a 
certain  period  of  life,  the  neglect  of  the  whole  intra-ovarian 
or  intra-uterine  period,  deserves  the  same  reproach.  From 
this  point  of  view,  the  existence  of  a  being  cannot  be  severed, 
any  more  than  the  conditions  of  life  under  whose  rule  this 
existence  is  accomplished. 

A  number  of  cases  do  away  with  all  doubt  as  to  the  action 
of  the  conditions  of  life  upon  the  germ,  or  upon  the  embryo, 
however  much  it  may  appear  to  be  protected  by  the  en- 
velopes of  the  ovumj  or  by  the  tissues  of  the  mother.  The  two 
Geotfroy  Saint-Hilaire  have  clearly  proved  that  monstrosity 
dates  from  the  earliest  stages  of  the  formation  of  the  being, 
and  indicates  in  certain  cases  the  external  causes  which  have 
produced  it.  The  experiments  of  M.  Dareste  have  confirmed 
and  enlarged  in  a  singular  manner  these  first  conclusions, 
while  giving  them  greater  precision.  By  mixing  madder 
with  the  food  of  a  female  mammal,  Flourens  produced  a  red 
colour  in  the  bones  of  the  foetus.  By  placing  the  eggs  of 
a  salmon-trout  in  waters  which  only  nourished  white- 
trout,  Coste  noticed  the  eggs  become  gradually  paler,  and 
produce  trout  which  had  lost  the  characteristic  colour  of 
their  race.  In  order  to  increase  the  height  of  our  excellent 
small  horses  of  the  "  camargue  "  race,  it  is  sufficient  to  give 
the  mare  during  the  period  of  gestation  a  more  plentiful 
diet  than  that  to  which  s'he  is  accustomed  in  her  half- wild 
state. 

Thus  it  is  established  in  the  clearest  manner  and  by  exact 
experiments  that  the  conditions  of  life,  when  acting  upon 
the  embryo  during  the  intra-uterine  or  intra-ovarian  part  of 
its  existence,  are  capable  of  producing  either  the  gravest 
teratological  disorders,  or  simple  and  slight  deviations.  We 
are,  therefore,  clearly  justified  in  attributing  to  the  same 
cause  modifications  which  are  placed  between  these  extremes 


248  The  Human  Species. 

according  to  their  importance.  To  invoke  innateness,  in  order 
to  explain  their  appearance,  is  obviously  superfluous.  We 
shall  connect,  therefore,  with  actions  of  this  kind  the  appear- 
ance of  the  first  spineless  Acacia  of  which  we  have  spoken 
before,  of  the  first  Ancon  sheep  in  Massachusetts  in  1791, 
that  of  the  first  Mauchamp  sheep  in  France  in  1828,  etc. 

The  Ancon  and  Mauchamp  races  are  only  propagated  by 
human  industry.  But  these  sudden  deviations  from  a  given 
type  can  also  extend  and  multiply  their  numbers  by  them- 
selves. It  is  well-known  that  South  American  oxen  are 
descended  from  a  horned  Spanish  race.  Now,  in  1770,  a 
hornless  ox  Avas  produced  in  Paraguay.  In  several  years, 
according  to  d'Azara,  this  exceptional  form  had,  as  it  were, 
invaded  several  provinces.  Nevertheless,  the  race  is  far  from 
being  in  favour,  because  the  absence  of  horns  renders  it  less 
liable  to  be  caught  by  the  lasso,  so  that  its  destruction  was 
attempted.  It  was,  therefore,  evidently  proj)agated  spon- 
taneously. 

Whoever  has  the  smallest  acquaintance  with  embryogenesis 
will  have  no  difficulty  in  understanding  that  conditions  of 
life  act  especially  upon  organisms  in  respect  to  their  forma- 
tion and  evolution.  However,  their  influence  upon  an 
animal,  even  when  full-grown,  is  sometimes  quite  as  marked. 
Our  sheep,  when  transferred  to  America,  generally  become 
acclimatised  without  undergoing  great  changes.  Their  fleece, 
particularly,  is  retained.  But  in  the  plains  of  the  Meta  it  is 
only  retained  on  condition  of  the  sheep  being  regularly  shorn. 
If  they  are  left  to  themselves,  the  wool  becomes  of  a  felty 
nature,  is  detached  in  flakes,  and  is  replaced  by  a  short,  stiff, 
and  .shining  hair.  Under  the  influence  of  this  burnino- 
climate,  the  same  individual  becomes  in  turn  a  woolly  and  a 
hairy  animal.  Now,  innateness,  as  Prosper  Lucas  conceives 
it,  cannot  be  appealed  to  in  the  case  of  changes  undergone 
by  a  full-grown  animal,  whilst  the  action  of  conditions  of  life 
is  here  incontestable. 

VI.  We  have  just  pointed  out  how  lieredity  and  conditions 
of  life  can  give  rise  to  a  varlcly.     Now,  the  individual  which 


Action  of  Conditions  of  Life  and  Ho'edity.    249 

has  commenced  to  deviate  from  its  original  type  becomes  in 
its  turn  a  'parent ;  it  tends  to  transmit  to  its  offspring  the 
exceptional  characters  ■svhich  distinguish  it.  The  same  facts 
are  repeated  in  its  offspring;  and,  at  each  generation,  the 
actions  of  the  conditions  of  life  are  added  to  each  other. 
Thus  every  time  heredity  transmits  the  sura  of  these  actions 
to  the  following  generation.  The  faintest  modification 
increased  from  father  to  son  sometimes  leads  to  most  marked 
changes.  Our  Eui-opean  oxen,  in  the  hot  plains  of  Mariquita 
and  Neyba  gradually  lost  their  hair,  at  first  became  pelones, 
and  would  soon  have  formed  an  entirely  naked  race,  if  the 
calongos  had  not  been  regularly  killed.  Again,  pigs  which 
have  become  wild  in  the  Paramos  have  acquired  a  kind  of 
wool  under  the  action  of  a  continuous,  but  not  excessive  cold. 
The  Guinea  dog  and  the  Esquimaux  dog  present  an  analogous 
contrast  between  races  of  the  same  species. 

In  the  preceding  examples,  and  in  many  others  which 
must  be  omitted,  the  actions  in  question  modify  organisms 
in  order  to  place  them  in  harmony  with  the  conditions  of 
life.  Now  it  is  intelligible  that  when  the  maximum  of  pos- 
sible effect  has  once  been  attained,  they  can  only  fix  the 
result  obtained  more  fully,  but  can  never  determine  a  change 
in  the  opposite  direction.  The  heat,  which  has  by  degrees 
deprived  calongo  cattle  of  their  hair,  will  never  restore 
it  again  ;  and  the  cold  wliich  has  made  our  pigs  woolly, 
Avill  never  deprive  them  of  wool.  Here,  then,  Ave  find  con- 
ditions of  life  acting  as  an  agent  of  preservation  and 
stability. 

VII.  In  the  jjrcceding  passage  allusion  has  been  made  to 
natural  forces  left  to  themselves.  It  is  to  them  that  the 
formation  is  due  of  the  wild  races  of  all  the  species  whose 
geographical  area  is  very  extended,  such  as  the  fox,  jackal, 
lion,  etc. 

These  races  are  sometimes  so  different  that  they  were 
regarded  as  distinct  species,  as  long  as  the  intervening  geo- 
graphical and  zoological  terms  were  unknown.  Frederick 
Cuvier  himself  made  this  mistake  in  the  case  of  the  jackals 


250  The  Hufuan  Species. 

of  India  and  those  of  the  Senegal.  Wild  races  have,  however, 
never  been  so  numerous  or  so  distinct  from  each  other  as 
domesticated  races. 

Are  we  to  infer  from  this  that  man  exercises  around  him- 
self and  of  himself  a  kind  of  magnetic  action,  as  some  authors 
seem  to  admit?  Certainly  not.  In  reality,  he  only  acts 
upon  an  animal  by  setting  in  action,  sometimes  intentionally, 
sometimes  unintentionally,  the  two  agents  which,  hitherto, 
we  have  met  with  everywhere,  conditions  of  life  and  heredity. 
By  the  single  fact  of  domestication,  by  the  confinement  which 
is  almost  always  the  result  of  it,  he  changes  entirely  the 
natural  conditions  of  existence.  By  leading  in  his  train  the 
animals  which  he  has  enslaved,  he  diversifies  still  more  the 
influences  which  act  upon  them.  Prompt  to  seize  every 
means  of  rendering  them  most  useful,  he  profits  by  the 
smallest  modifications  which  show  the  least  advantage, 
pushes  them  to  their  utmost  limits  and  produces  the  extreme 
races,  of  which  our  exhibitions  of  animal  races  give  such 
curious  examples. 

The  chief  means  which  man  uses  for  the  attainment  of 
these  results,  which  at  times  seem  to  border  on  the  marvellous, 
is  selection.  Ever  since  he  has  possessed  domestic  animals 
he  has  marked  out  among  them  individuals  which  are  better 
adapted  than  the  rest  to  bis  intentions.  By  some  kind  of 
instinct,  or  unconsciously,  as  Darwin  says,  he  has  chosen 
them  to  breed  from.  By  rejecting  the  types  which  he 
considers  inferior,  and  only  employing  the  higher  types 
wherewith  to  propagate  the  species,  he  has  directed  the 
action  of  heredity  in  a  definite  direction,  and  has  readily 
created  races.  Now,  man  has  acted  in  this  manner  since  the 
times  spoken  of  in  Genesis  and  by  Chou-King,  that  is,  for 
thousands  of  years.  Is  it  then  surprising  that  he  should 
have  multiplied  around  him  hereditary  forms  which  are 
more  or  less  distinct  from  the  primitive  types  ? 

Progressive  selection  would  doubtless  lead  to  numerous 
and  varied  results.  Would  it  allow  of  the  creation  of  races 
whose  characters  almost  reach  hcmitcry?     Tlie  answer  to 


Action  of  Conditions  of  Life  and  Heredity.    251 

tbis  question  is  at  least  doubtful.  But  we  have  not  to  ask 
it.  Wlien  by  one  of  the  actions  of  the  conditions  of  life, 
Avhose  origin  remains  obscure,  an  almost  teratological  animal 
form  is  produced,  it  soon  disappears  by  the  mixture  of  blood 
from  different  sources,  if  unions  are  left  to  chance.  This  is 
the  reason  why  analogous  facts  are  not  observed  in  feral 
races.  But  if  this  form  appears  in  a  domestic  animal,  if  it 
answers  to  any  want  or  caprice,  selection  intervenes,  preserves 
it,  and  multiplies  it.  This  explains  the  origin  of  the  Ancon 
sheep,  which  were  all  descended  from  a  single  ram  of  which 
we  have  spoken  above  ;  also  the  means  by  which  M.  Graux 
de  Mauchamp  has  raised  his  race  of  sheep  with  silky  fleeces 
from  a  single  ram.  These  two  examples  show  how  all  those 
peculiar  races  have  been  obtained,  which  in  some  of  their 
characters  seem  to  clash  with  the  very  type  from  which  they 
were  derived.  In  the  canine  species  the  beagle  corresponds 
to  the  Ancon  sheep;  the  niata  cattle,  which  have  appeared  in 
South  America  since  its  conquest,  correspond  to  the  bull-dog, 
etc. 

VIII.  Races,  when  once  formed  under  man's  influence,  are 
fixed  by  the  same  causes  which  produced  them.  Their 
characters,  wdiich  at  first  were  entirely  artificial,  become 
more  and  more  fixed,  so  much  so,  that  even  a  very  consider- 
able change  in  the  conditions  of  existence,  never  effiices  them 
entirely.  The  acquired  nature  is,  so  to  speak,  welded  to  the 
original  nature  of  the  being. 

This  is  a  fact  not  generally  recognised  by  naturalists  and 
anthropologists  who  have  touched  upon  these  questions.  For 
instance,  it  has  been  admitted  as  proved  that  domestic  races, 
when  they  have  returned  to  the  feral  state,  reassume  all  the 
original  characters  of  the  species.  This  is  a  mistake.  The 
fact  is,  that  hoth  with  animals  and  plants,  escaped  races 
lose  a  certain  number  of  characters,  and  frequently  the 
most  apparent  ones,  which  they  owe  to  domestication  ;  they 
reassume  others  which  they  had  lost  during  their  period  oV 
servitude,  but  the  former  are  morefrequently  only  diminished 
and  masked  by  the  latter.     If  fruit-trees  escaped  from  our 


252  TJie  Human  Species. 

orchards,  if  our  horses,  dogs,  cattle,  and  pigs,  when  they  have 
become  wild,  had  really  reassiimed  the  original  type  of  the 
species,  they  ought  to  present  in  every  area  which  they  in- 
habit the  marked  uniformity  characteristic  of  animals  who 
were  never  subject  to  man.  This  is  not  the  case.  They 
ought  in  particular  to  preserve  no  trace  of  their  acquired 
characters.  Now,  the  latter  are  partly  persistent.  Vans  Mons 
has  found  apple-trees  and  pear-trees  of  Belgium,  in  a  wild 
state,  in  the  forest  of  the  Ardennes.  The  prickles  had 
reappeared,  the  fruit  had  become  small  and  bitter  again,  but 
the  principal  cultivated  varieties  were  still  to  be  recognised. 
I  have  established  an  analogous  fact  with  regard  to  cling- 
stone and  free-stone  peach-trees  in  a  valley  of  the  Cevennes. 
Similarly  Martin  de  Moussy  has  recognised  in  the  troops  of 
doCTs  which  have  become  wild  in  America,  all  the  chief  races 
from  which  they  had  been  derived,  although  they  reassumcd 
the  general  characters  of  the  tan-coloured  type. 

IX.  From  the  number  of  observations  which  have  been 
collected  among  plants  and  animals,  and  of  which  I  can  only 
notice  a  small  number,  it  is  easy  to  understand  the  appear- 
ance and  multiplication  of  human  races,  and  to  account  for 
certain  general  facts,  some  of  which  are  closely  connected 
with  our  history.  Let  us  state  at  starting  that  with  man, 
as  with  animals,  varieties  have  appeared  at  times  which 
may  be  classed  among  hemitery.  Individuals,  exhibiting 
from  their  birth  exceptional  characters,  are  none  the  less 
healthy,  and  sometimes  have  very  remarkable  power  of 
transmission.  Edward  Lambert,  born  in  1717  of  perfectly 
healthy  parents,  had  all  his  life  a  kind  of  carapace  more  than 
an  inch  thick,  and  irregularly  fissured,  which  gave  him  the 
name  of  tJte  jyorcujnne  man.  All  his  children,  to  the  number 
of  six,  and  his  two  grandchildren,  inherited  this  strange  modi- 
fication of  the  skin,  although  his  wife  and  his  daughter-in-law 
did  not  show  the  least  trace  of  it.  In  the  Colburn  family, 
four  generations  were  n\arkcd  with  polydactylism  which  was 
derived  from  the  grandmother  of  the  great  calculator.  At 
the  fourth  generation,  four  children  out  of  eight  still  had 


Action  of  Conditions  of  Life  and  Heredity.    253 

supernumerary  fingers,  though  at  each  generation   normal 
blood  was  mixed  with  the  teratological  blood. 

Evidently,  if  the  descendants  of  Lambert  and  Colburn  had 
been  treated  like  those  of  the  first  Ancon  or  Mauchamp 
sheep,  two  human  races  would  have  been  obtained,  one 
characterised  by  a  cutaneous  carapace,  and  the  other  by  the 
possession  of  six  fingers.  But  here  selection  was  wanting, 
and  the  exceptional  blood,  from  being  diluted  at  each  fresh 
marriage,  did  not  fail  to  be  rapidly  exhausted, 

X.  Man  does  not  subject  himself  to  the  selection;  which 
he  applies  with  so  much  success  to  animals  and  plants.  In 
his  species,  therefore,  the  extreme  variations  which  are 
obtained  elsewhere  are  not  produced.  It  is  thus  easily 
explained  why  the  limits  of  variation  are  not  so  extensive 
with  man  as  with  domesticated  or  cultivated  races.  But  if, 
for  some  motive  or  other,  he  were  to  apply  the  process  of 
selection  to  himself,  we  should  not  have  to  wait  lonof  for 
the  result.  By  marrying  the  tallest  women  to  the  giants  of 
their  guard,  Frederick  William  and  Frederick  II.  had  created 
at  Potsdam  a  real  race  distinguished  for  its  tall  stature.  In 
Alsace  a  Duke  de  Deux-Ponts,  who  imitated  the  Prussian 
sovereigns,  obtained  the  same  result. 

There  is  another  cause  which  contributes  powerfully  to 
restrict  the  limits  of  variation  in  man,  namely,  the  power 
which  his  intelligence  gives  him  of  partly  escaping  from  the 
effects  of  the  conditions  of  life.  He  is  always  struggling,  as 
much  as  he  is  able,  against  the  external  influences  capable  of 
disturbing  the  equilibrium  which  constitutes  his  well-being. 
In  the  tropics,  he  uses  contrivances  for  avoiding  the  heat ;  in 
the  polar  circle,  he  perfects  his  means  of  heating  ;  if  he 
emigrates,  he  carries  with  him,  as  far  as  he  can,  his  manners 
and  customs,  and  struggles  Avith  redoubled  care  against  the 
new  conditions  of  life.  There  is  nothing  strange  in  findinjj 
him  successful  in  neutralising  to  a  certain  extent  the  modifying 
influences  of  the  external  world. 

XI.  Nevertheless,  the  conditions  of  life  do  not  surrender 
their  rights  ;  although  diminished,  their  action  is  none  the 


2  54  The  Human  Species. 

less  real.  This  is  a  fact  which  can  be  affirmed  by  what 
occurs  ia  our  great  western  colonies.  Each  great  European 
race  is  there  represented  by  derived  sub-races  which  vary 
according  to  the  locality.  The  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
North  and  South  America,  and  Australia  itself,  which  has 
been  so  recently  colonised,  have  at  this  time  their  own 
peculiar  races,  some  of  which  are  remarkably  characterised. 

Since  I  am  unable  to  treat  in  detail  all  these  facts  of 
transmutation,  I  will  only  notice  some  of  the  facts  which 
have  been  established  in  the  United  States.  "We  know  that 
the  English  race  was  only  definitely  settled  there  at  the  time 
of  the  Puritan  emigration,  about  1620,  and  from  the  arrival 
of  Penn  in  1681.  Two  centuries  and  a  half,  twelve  genera- 
tions at  the  most,  separate  us  from  this  epoch,  and  neverthe- 
less, the  Anglo-American,  the  Yankee,  no  longer  resembles 
his  ancestors.  The  fact  is  so  striking  that  the  eminent 
zoologist,  Andrew  Murray,  when  endeavouring  to  account  for 
the  formation  of  animal  races,  finds  he  cannot  do  better  than 
appeal  to  the  condition  of  mankind  in  the  United  States. 

The  subject,  moreover,  is  not  wanting  in  precise  details, 
which  are  vouched  for  by  a  number  of  travellers,  by 
naturalists,  and  doctors.  At  the  second  generation  the 
English  Creole  in  North  America,  presents,  in  his  features, 
an  alteration  which  approximates  him  to  the  native  races. 
Subsequently  the  skin  dries  and  loses  its  rosy  colour,  the 
glandular  .system  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  the  hair  darkens 
and  becomes  glossy,  the  neck  becomes  slender,  and  the  size 
of  the  head  diminishes.  In  the  face,  the  temporal  foss£B  are 
pronounced,  the  cheek-bones  become  prominent,  the  orbital 
cavities  become  hollow,  and  the  lower  jaw  massive.  The 
bones  of  the  extremities  are  elongated,  while  their  cavity  is 
diminished,  so  much  so,  that  in  France  and  England  gloves 
are  specially  made  for  the  United  States  with  exceptionally 
long  fingers.  Lastly,  in  the  woman,  the  pefvis,  in  its  propor- 
tions, approaches  to  that  of  the  man. 

Are  these  changes  signs  of  a  degeneration  already  ac- 
complished,  and    of    an   approaching    extinction,   as    Knox 


Action  of  Conditions  of  Life  and  Heredity.    255 

asserts?  I  think  a  reply  to  this  assertion  is  hardly, 
necessary.  We  are  sufficiently  acquainted  with  American 
men  and  women  to  know  that,  although  modified,  the 
physical  type  is  not  on  that  account  lowered  in  the  scale  of 
races;  and  the  social  grandeur  of  the  United  States,  the 
marvels  they  have  accomplished,  the  energy  with  which  they 
pass  through  the  rudest  crises,  prove  that  from  every  point  of 
view,  the  Yankee  race  has  retained  its  rank.  It  is  simply 
a  new  race,  formed  by  the  American  conditions  of  life,  but 
which  remains  worthy  of  its  elder  sisters  in  Europe,  and  will 
perhaps  some  day  surpass  them. 

The  Negro  transported  into  the  same  countries  has  also 
undergone  remarkable  changes.  His  colour  has  paled,  his 
features  have  improved,  and  his  physiognomy  is  altered.  "  In 
the  space  of  150  years,"  says  M.  Elis^e  Reclus,  "they  have 
passed  a  good  fourth  of  the  distance  which  separates  them  from 
the  whites,  as  far  as  external  appearance  goes."  Lyell's 
opinion  is  almost  the  same.  Moreover,  when  visiting  two 
Negro  churches,  at  Savannah,  he  remarked  that  the  odour  so 
characteristic  of  the  race  was  scarcely  appreciable.  A  long 
medical  experience  at  New  Orleans  has  shown  Dr.  Visinid 
that  the  blood  of  the  Negro  Creole  has  lost  the  excess  of 
plasticity  which  it  possessed  in  Africa.  With  MM.  Reiset, 
de  Lisboa,  etc.,  with  even  Nott  and  Gliddon,  let  us  add  that, 
while  the  physical  type  has  undergone  modification,  the 
intelligence  has  improved,  and  we  shall  have  to  recognise 
that  in  the  United  States  a  svh-Negro  race  has  been  formed, 
derived  from  the  imported  race. 

XII.  Thus  the  European  White  and  the  African  Negro, 
when  under  the  influence  of  new  conditions  of  life,  have 
both  undergone  modification.  Moreover  both,  according  to 
M.  Reclus,  whose  statements  are  confirmed  by  those  of  M. 
L'abbd  Brasseur  de  Bonbourg,  approximate  to  the  indigenous 
races.  Both  of  these  authors  seem  to  admit  that  at  the  end 
of  a  given  time,  whatever  be  their  origin,  all  the  descendants 
of  Whites  or  of  Negroes  who  have  immigrated  to  America  will 
become  Red-skins. 
12 


256  The  Htiman  Species. 

"When  two  such  intelligent  observers  arrive  at  an  identical 
and  certainly  quite  unexpected  conclusion  on  such  a  question, 
the  facts  must  be  very  patent.  Yet  they  have  forced  their 
meaning,  from  not  having  taken  sufficient  account  of  the 
nature  of  the  problem.  That  the  Negro  and  the  White 
should  replace  some  of  their  features  and  characters  by  some 
of  the  features  and  characters  belonging  to  the  indigenous 
races,  is  quite  natural.  When  subject  to  the  action  of  the 
conditions  of  life  which  have  formed  the  local  races,  they 
could  not  help  being  influenced  by  it  to  a  certain  extent. 
But  they  will  never  on  that  account  be  confused  with  the 
local  races  nor  with  each  other,  any  more  than  the  White 
transported  to  Africa  would  ever  become  a  true  Negro,  or 
the  European  descendants  of  a  Negro  would  ever  become  true 
Whites. 

This  impossibility  of  one  race  being  transformed  into 
another  is  often  brought  forward  as  an  objection  against 
Monogenism.  It  is  nevertheless  the  natural  consequence  of 
the  phenomena,  of  which  I  have  endeavoured  to  give  a  short 
account,  and  is  easily  explained.  Every  race  is  a  resultant 
whose  components  are,  partly  the  species  itself,  partly  the 
sum  of  the  modifying  agents  which  have  produced  the  devia- 
tion from  the  t^^pe.  We  cannot  separate  those  two  elements, 
and  races  which  have  run  wild  show  us  to  what  extent  the 
fusion  can  go.  Every  race  which  is  fixed,  when  brought 
under  the  conditions  of  life  Avhich  have  formed  another,  will 
doubtless  approximate  to  the  latter ;  but  it  will  partly  retain 
its  former  impress,  as  the  fruit-trees  of  Van  Mons  and  the 
wild  dogs  of  Martin  de  Moussy  have  done. 

Such  is  what  would  take  place  even  among  primary  races 
directly  detached  from  the  primitive  type,  and  which  have 
only  been  subject  to  tlie  action  of  one  fixed  condition  of  life. 
But  with  tlie  Negro  and  the  White,  the  question  is  much 
more  complex.  These  two  extreme  types  represent  the  last 
product  of  two  series  of  long-continued  actions,  whose  diversity 
and  multiplicity  are  indicated  by  the  geographical  stations 
themselves,     Europe  and  tropical  Africa  have  given  them,  if 


Actio7i  of  Conditions  of  Life  and  Heredity.  257 

tlie  expression  may  be  used,  the  last  touches  ;  but  their  out- 
line  was  sketched  out  long  before  they  reached  their  present 
habitat.  By  their  transposition,  we  only  submit  each  of 
them  to  a  part  of  the  influences  which  have  formed  the  other, 
and  consequently  a  complete  exchange  of  characters  could 
never  take  place. 

XIII.  Without  denying  absolutely  the  influence  of  the 
conditions  of  life  upon  man,  most  polygenists  refuse  to  admit 
that  they  have  the  power  of  producing  new  races.  To  sup- 
port their  statements,  they  appeal  to  the  persistence  of 
certain  types  for  a  considerable  lapse  of  time,  and  insist  most 
strongly  upon  certain  facts  derived  from  Egypt.  On  this 
latter  point  I  readily  agi*ee  with  them.  It  is  quite  true  that 
pictures  and  Egyptian  sculptures  point  to  the  existence  in 
the  valley  of  the  Nile  of  a  type,  or  rather  types,  which  are 
remarkably  uniform  ;  and  whoever  has  visited  these  countries 
has  certainly  been  struck,  as  I  was,  with  the  great  re- 
semblance of  the  peoples  of  the  present  to  those  of  the  past. 

But  what  reasons  are  there  why  the  inhabitants  of  the 
valley  of  the  Nile  should  change  ?  What  cause,  except  inter- 
crossing, could  determine  any  modification  in  their  physical 
characters  ?  In  this  region,  which  is  exceptional  in  so  many 
respects,  nothing  has  changed  since  historic  times,  neither  the 
earth,  the  sky,  nor  the  river ;  habits,  customs,  and  daily  life 
have  remained  as  they  were  in  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs  ; 
the  Eg}'ptian  even  uses  implements  in  our  days,  which  are 
exactly  like  those  which  were  used  fifty  or  sixty  centuries 
ago  by  his  ancestors. 

In  Egypt,  all  the  conditions  of  existence,  and,  consequently, 
the  actions  of  the  conditions  of  life,  are  the  same  in  our  days 
as  they  were  in  those  distant  times,  the  history  of  which  is 
preserved  by  the  monuments.  Far  from  tending  to  modify 
a  race  which  is  already  fixed,  they  have  only  helped  to  fix  it 
more  and  more.  In  the  order  of  ideas  which  I  support,  a 
change  in  the  Egyptian  type  would  be  inconceivable. 

The  persistence  of  a  type,  far  from  being  an  objection  to 
the  manner  in  whicli  I  understand  the  conditions  of  life  to 


258  The  Human  Species. 

act,  viz. :  the  formation  and  maintenance  of  races,  is  a  con- 
firmation of  it. 

XIV.  In  conclusion  ;  like  all  animal  and  vegetable  species, 
the  human  species  can  vary  within  certain  limits;  like 
plants  and  animals,  man  has  his  varieties  and  races,  which 
have  appeared  and  been  formed  by  the  action  of  the  same 
causes. 

In  the  human  kingdom,  as  in  the  two  other  organic 
kingdoms,  the  first  causes  of  variation  are,  conditions  of  life 
and  heredity. 

In  phenomena  of  this  kind,  conditions  of  life  act  as  the 
supreme  ruler.  If  they  vary,  they  become  modifying  agents, 
if  they  remain  constant,  agents  of  stabilisation. 

In  both  cases  their  result  is  to  harmonise  organisms  with 
the  conditions  of  their  existence. 

Heredity,  which  is  essentially  a  preserving  agent,  becomes 
an  ao-ent  of  variation,  when  it  transmits  and  accumulates  the 
modifying  actions  of  the  conditions  of  life. 

XV.  It  is  now  easy  to  understand,  in  the  general  sense, 
the  formation  of  human  races. 

Man  at  first  doubtless  peopled  his  centre  of  appearance 
and  the  countries  immediately  adjoining.  He  then  com- 
menced the  immense  and  varied  dispersion  which  dates 
from  tertiary  times  and  continues  to  the  present  day.  He 
has  passed  through  two  geological  epochs,  and  is  now  in  his 
third.  He  has  seen  the  mammoth  and  rhinoceros  flourishing 
in  Siberia  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  fauna  ;  he  has  at  least  seen 
them  driven  by  the  cold  into  the  midst  of  Europe ;  and  he 
has  assisted  in  their  extinction.  Later  on,  he  has  retaken 
possession  of  the  barren-lands  himself;  he  has  pushed  his 
colonies  as  far  as  the  neighbourhood  of  the  pole,  perhaps  to 
the  very  pole  itself,  while  at  the  same  time  he  has  invaded 
the  forests  and  deserts  of  the  tropics,  reached  the  extremity 
of  two  great  continents,  and  peopled  all  the  archipelagoes. 

For  many  thousands  of  years,  man  has  therefore  been 
subject  to  the  action  of  all  the  external  conditions  of  life 
with  which  we  are  acquainted,  to  that  of  the  conditions  of  life 


Action  of  Conditions  of  Life  and  Ilci-edity.  259 

of  which  we  can  at  the  utmost  only  form  an  idea.  The 
various  kinds  of  life  to  which  he  has  been  subjected,  and  the 
ditferent  degrees  of  civilisation  at  which  he  stopped  or  to 
which  he  has  reached,  have  all  diversified  still  more  his  con- 
ditions of  existence.  Was  it  possible  that  he  should  retain 
everywhere  and  for  all  time  his  original  characters  ? 

Experience  and  observation  lead  to  an  entirely  opposite  con- 
clusion. When  we  see  the  Anglo-Saxon  of  our  days,  although 
protected  by  all  the  resources  of  an  advanced  civilisation,  sub- 
jected to  the  American  conditions  of  life,  and  changed  into  a 
Yankee,  we  must  admit  that  at  each  of  his  great  stages,  when 
man  is  submitted  to  new  conditions  of  existence,  he  has  had 
to  harmonise  himself  with  them,  and  in  so  doing  undergo 
modification.  Each  of  these  principal  stations  has  neces- 
sarily witnessed  the  formation  of  a  corresponding  race.  The 
original  characters,  thus  successively  affected,  have  become 
more  and  more  altered,  by  reason  of  the  length  of  the 
journey,  and  the  difference  of  conditions.  When  they  have 
reached  the  end  of  their  journey  the  grandchildren  of  the 
first  emigrants  would  certainly  only  retain  very  few  of  the 
characters  of  their  ancestors. 

The  original  human  type  has  probably  presented,  for  an 
indefinite  time,  its  original  characters  in  the  tribes  which 
remained  fixed  to  the  centre  of  appearance  for  our  species. 
When  the  glacial  epoch  began,  which,  according  to  all  appear- 
ance, made  the  earliest  country  of  man  uninhabitable,  these 
tribes  were  forced  to  emigrate  in  their  turn.  Since  that  time 
the  earth  has  no  longer  had  autochthones,  but  has  only  been 
peopled  by  colomst.s.  At  the  same  time  the  modifying 
action  of  the  conditions  of  life  was  felt  by  these  last  comers, 
who  themsi'lves  were  also  transformed. 

From  this  moment,  the  original  type  of  man  has  been 
lost ;  the  human  species  was  only  composed  of  races,  all  of 
which  differed  more  or  loss  from  tlic  first  model. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

FORMATION   OF   MIXED   HUMAN   RACES. 

I.  The  races  whicli  had  been  developed  by  the  sole  action 
of  the  conditions  of  life  and  of  heredity,  did  not  remain 
isolated.  The  earliest  emigrants  from  the  centre  of  appear- 
ance certainly  did  not  pass  at  once  to  the  extremity  of  the 
area  determined  by  their  first  stages.  They  stopped  on 
the  way  ;  they  formed  secondary  centres,  round  which  fresh 
emigrations  spread.  The  history  of  the  Lenni  Lenapes,  as  of 
the  Polynesians,  proves  that  this  must  have  been  the  case. 
Consequently,  in  many  cases,  the  races  first  formed  must 
frequently  have  come  in  contact.  Then,  as  the  waves  of 
emigration  followed  each  other,  the  last  comers  would  meet 
on  their  way  with  those  wlio  preceded  them.  It  Avill  further 
on  be  proved  that  facts  of  this  nature  have  occurred  since 
Quaternary  times. 

Whether  peaceful  or  otlierwise,  these  contacts  would 
result  in  reciprocal  penetrations,  and  consequently  in  inter- 
crossings. 

The  founders  of  anthropology,  Buffon,  Blumenbach,  and 
even  Prichard,  have  taken  very  little  notice  of  crossings 
between  human  races,  and  have  neglected  their  importance. 
It  can  scarcely  be  brought  as  a  serious  reproach  against 
them.  The  two  former  were  unacquainted  with  many  of  the 
facts  which  we  possess  at  present.  Prichard  was  neither  a 
naturalist  nor  a  physiologist.  Moreover,  nothing  forcibly 
directed  their  attention  towards  crossing's  which  might  have 
occurred  in  more  or  less  distant  times,  or  among  nations  still 
insufficiently  known. 

At  the  present  time  this  indifference  is  impossible.     On 


Forination  of  Mixed  HzLinan  Races.        261 

the  one  hand,  the  better  the  various  nations  are  known,  the 
greater  becomes  the  number  of  those  which  derive  their 
origin  from  intercrossing;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  impossible 
not  to  pay  attention  to  everything  which  happens  to  man- 
kind in  consequence  of  the  impulse  to  expansion  and 
mixture  which  takes  place  on  every  side.  From  seeing  the 
phenomena  which  occur  in  the  present  times,  we  are  naturally 
led  to  investigate  those  which  may  have  taken  place  in  times 
past. 

II.  Are  mixed  human  races  formed  now?  In  the  presence 
of  the  general  facts  >vhich  I  have  related  in  a  preceding 
chapter,  this  question  might  appear  strange.  Nevertheless, 
the  question  has  been  asked,  and  in  a  more  or  less  formal 
manner  has  been  answ^ered  in  the  negative.  A  few  words 
on  the  subject  are  therefore  necessary. 

We  may  consider  the  era  of  modern  crossings  as  dating 
from  the  discovery  of  the  new  world.  Nevertheless  the 
mixture  of  bloods  has  only  taken  place  on  a  large  scale  at  a 
later  period,  at  the  utmost  after  the  conquest  of  the  Indies 
in  1515,  that  of  Mexico  in  1520,  and  that  of  Peru  in  1534. 
We  are  not  separated  from  this  epoch  by  more  than  three 
centuries  and  a  half.  And  yet  M.  d'Omalius,  only  counting 
the  products  of  the  crossing  of  the  European  White  with  the 
different  coloured  races,  estimates  the  number  of  half-breeds 
at  eighteen  millions.  The  population  of  the  globe  being  esti- 
mated as  1200  millions,  the  product  of  cross-unions  is  already 
represented  by  about  -^Vth. 

We  know,  moreover,  how  irregular  is  the  distribution  of 
half-breeds.  Immense  tracts  of  country  have  not  been 
affected.  But  where  the  peoples  are  in  intimate  contact, 
the  proportion  is  much  greater.  In  Mexico  and  South 
America  half-breeds  constitute  at  least  one-fifth  of  the  popu- 
lation. 

But,  say  Knox  and  the  other  anthropologists  who  more  or 
less  explicitly  adopt  his  views,  the  number  of  half-breeds  is 
entirely  kept  up  by  incessant  cross-unions.  If  abandoned  to 
themselves,  and  if  they  no  longer  had  access  to  the  pure 


262  The  Human  Species. 

races,  they  would  rapidly  disappear.  I  will  confine  myself 
to  quoting  a  few  facts  in  opposition  to  these  assertions. 

At  the  Cape,  the  intercrossing  of  the  Dutch  and  the 
Hottentots  has  resulted  iu  half-breeds  called  Basters,  who 
soon  became  sufficiently  numerous  to  inspire  alarm.  They 
were  banished  beyond  the  Orange  river.  Here  they  settled 
under  the  name  of  Griquas,  and  they  increased  ia  numbers 
rapidly.  A  portion  remained  behind  in  the  colony,  and 
formed  villages,  among  others  that  of  New  Platberg.  The 
Basters  intermarried  between  themselves,  and  travellers 
testify  to  the  fertility  of  these  unions. 

Martins  has  seen  the  Cafusos,  the  result  of  the  crossing  of 
escaped  Negroes  with  the  Brazilian  indigenes.  Having  re- 
tired into  the  woods,  where  they  found  a  refuge,  they  have 
formed  a  separate  race  there. 

Admiral  Jurien  de  la  Graviere  informs  us  that  at  Manilla 
the  half-breeds  of  Spaniards,  Chinese,  and  Tagals,  are  much 
more  numerous  than  the  original  stocks.  At  Mindanao 
half-breeds  of  Spaniards  and  Tagals  form  the  majority  of  the 
inhabitants.  "The  fusion  of  races,"  he  adds,  "has  taken 
place  Avith  marvellous  facility  in  this  isolated  corner  of  the 
earth." 

The  Marquesas  Islands,  suffering  the  fate  of  the  other 
Polynesian  countries,  have  been  depopulated  by  that  mys- 
terious malady  which  seems  capable  of  annihilating  oceanic 
populations.  M.  Jouan  informs  us  that  they  are  repeopled 
by  half-breeds. 

Upon  the  whole  of  the  littoral  zone  of  South  America, 
according  to  M.  Martin  de  Monosy,  mixed  peoples  are  pros- 
pering and  rapidly  on  the  increase. 

We  may  close  this  enumeration  by  a  detailed  account  of  a 
fact  which  is  well  known,  and  which  has  all  the  value  of  a 
precise  experiment. 

In  1780,  in  consequence  of  a  mutiny,  nine  English  sailors 
went  and  established  themselves  upon  the  small  island  of 
Pitcairn,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  accompanied  by  six  Tahitian 
men  and  fifteen   Tahitian   women.     In  consequence  of  the 


Formation  of  ]\ lived  Human  Races.        263 

Whites  becoming  tyrannical,  the  war  of  race  began.  In 
1793  the  population  was  reduced  to  four  Whites  and  to  ten 
Tahitian  women.  Soon  war  broke  out  afresh  between  the 
four  chiefs  of  the  colony,  and  Adams  only  was  left.  But 
marriages  had  been  fruitful ;  the  first  half-breeds  grew  up, 
intermarried,  and  had  numerous  children.  In  1825,  Captain 
Beechey  found  sixty-six  individuals  on  Pitcairn  Island.  To- 
Avards  the  end  of  1830  the  population  numbered  eighty- 
seven.  •  In  spite  of  the  deplorable  conditions  of  the  outset, 
the  mixed  Pitcairn  race  had  then  almost  doubled  in  twenty- 
five  years,  and  almost  tripled  in  thirty-three  years.  Now 
England,  the  most  favoured  country  in  Europe  in  this  respect, 
only  doubles  its  population  in  forty-nine  years.  Thus  the 
half-breeds  of  banished  English  and  Polynesians  had  on 
Pitcairn  Island  about  double  the  number  of  offspring  that 
piu-e  Anglo-Saxons  have  when  placed  in  their  customary 
conditions  of  life. 

Thus  the  white  race,  when  crossed  with  races  most  dif- 
ferent in  characters  and  habit,  have  given  rise  to  mixed 
peoples,  which  have  continued  to  increase  since  their  appear- 
ance. No  reason  can  be  given  why  this  movement  of  increase 
should  stop  or  even  slacken. 

III.  There  remains  the  intercrossing  of  the  White  and  the 
Negro.  It  is  with  reference  to  this  that  some  facts  have  been 
quoted  tending  to  prove  that  half-breeds  cannot  propagate 
among  themselves.     Let  us  examine  them  rapidly. 

Etwick  and  Long,  in  their  History  of  Jamaica,  have 
asserted  that  Mulattoes  cease  to  be  reproductive  in  that  island 
beyond  the  third  generation.  Dr.  Yvan  has  pointed  out  an 
analogous  fact  in  Java.  Dr.  Nott  has  found  that  in  South 
Carolina,  Mulattoes  are  endowed  with  low  fertility,  that  they 
have  a  shorter  life  than  other  human  races,  and  that  they 
frequently  die  at  an  early  age.  Without  going  so  far,  Dr. 
Simonnot  attributes  to  these  half-breeds  a  sort  of  ethno- 
logical neutrality,  "which  only  assures  them  an  ephemeral 
duration  as  soon  as  they  are  abandoned  to  themselves.'' 

Nothing   is   easier  tlian   to   oppose  contrary  facts  to  the 


264  The  Htnnan  Species. 

foregoing.  I  can  even  invoke  the  testimony  of  some  of  the 
same  authors  whom  I  have  just  quoted.  Nott,  after  having 
in  a  general  manner  formulated  the  aphorisms  which  I  have 
just  summed  up,  admits  that  they  only  apply  to  South  Caro- 
lina, whilst  in  Louisiana,  Florida,  and  Alabama,  the  Mulattoes 
are  robust,  fruitful,  and  energetic.  I  find  that  Dr.  Yvan 
himself  states  that  his  observations  only  concern  Java,  and 
that  he  had  pointed  out  the  fact  as  exceptional. 

On  the  other  hand,  Hombron  declares  that  in  our  colonies 
"  Negresses  and  Whites  show  a  moderate  fertility  ;  Mulatto 
women  and  Whites  are  extremely  fertile  as  well  as  Mulatto 
men  and  women." 

"  Even  in  such  conditions  of  life  as  those  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  the  Mulatto,"  according  to  M.  Rufz,  "  is  well 
developed,  strong,  alert,  more  adapted  than  the  Negro  for 
industrial  application,  and  very  productive."  According  to 
M.  Audain,  in  the  Dominican  Republic  of  St.  Domingo,  "  one- 
third  are  Negroes,  two-thirds  Mulattoes,  and  an  insignificant 
proportion  Whites."  For  a  long  time  this  population  has  not 
been  fed  by  any  fresh  arrivals ;  its  continuance  is  entirely  due 
to  itself 

More  quotations,  I  think,  are  useless.  When  added  to  the 
numbers  of  M.  Martin  de  Moussey,  who  makes  no  exception 
concerning  Mulattoes,  they  are  sufficient  to  demonstrate  the 
following  general  fact,  viz.,  that  the  Mulatto  is  as  energetic 
and  as  fruitful  as  other  races,  at  least  in  a  very  great  majority 
of  those  parts  of  the  globe  where  this  mixed  population  has 
been  formed. 

IV.  Nevertheless,  I  do  not  deny  the  facts  advanced  by 
Etwick,  Long,  Nott,  Yvan,  and  Simonnot.  I  accept  them 
without  so  much  as  discussing  them.  But  what  do  they 
prove  in  the  presence  of  the  remaining  facts  which  are  so 
numerous  and  so  conclusive  ?  At  the  most  that  the  develop- 
ment of  the  mulatto  race  can  be  favoured,  retarded,  or 
hindered  by  local  circumstances.  In  other  terms,  that  it 
depends  upon  the  influences  exercised  by  tlie  whole  of  the 
conditions  of  life  {milieu). 


Formation  of  Mixed  Human  Races.         265 

We  sec,  then,  in  the  formation  of  the  mixed  races,  the 
reappearance  of  this  element,  whose  action  plays  so  large  a 
part  in  the  natural  history  of  man,  and  great  attention  should 
be  paid  to  it. 

In  the  result  of  the  crossing  of  the  Negro  and  the  White 
in  Jamaica,  Java,  &c.,  its  intervention  could  be  foreseen.  The 
two  races  are  strangers  to  these  countries,  which  are  known 
to  be  very  destructive  to  foreign  races.  The  question  of 
crossing  is  complicated  in  these  cases,  by  the  phenomena 
and  difficulties  of  acclimatisation.  Can  we  feel  surprised 
that  unions  contracted  under  such  conditions  of  existence 
should  only  present  precarious  guarantees  for  the  future  ? 

We  must  here,  moreover,  take  into  account  an  element 
which  is  constantly  neglected,  and  whose  importance  in 
questions  of  this  nature  has  always  struck  me  strongly.  I 
mean  morality.  It  therefore  forms  one  of  the  conditions 
of  life  (milieu).  Now,  if  we  pay  attention  to  the  details, 
which  are  not  numei'ous,  but  which  are  very  significant, 
given  by  some  travellers  upon  the  existence  of  Europeans 
in  the  colonies,  in  Jamaica  in  particular ;  if  we  compare  these 
melancholy  facts  with  those  furnished  by  daily  observation, 
an  entirely  new  light  will  be  thrown  upon  the  questions  of 
crossing  and  acclimatisation.  We  shall  be  obliged  to 
recognise  that  the  death  of  the  fathers,  and  the  extinction 
of  the  descendants,  are  often  only  the  consequence  of,  and 
the  punishment  for,  the  deplorable  moral  conditions  of  life, 
in  which  they  have  lived. 

V.  But  the  pJiysical  conditions  of  life  have  also  their 
peculiar  action.  The  following  examjjle  may  be  quoted  as 
a  proof 

M.  Simonnot  has  noticed  natives  of  Senegambia,  "  who 
combine  a  perfectly  black  skin,  with  all  the  characteristic 
forms  of  the  Moor,  ev-en  at  all  ages."  According  to  him,  these 
black  Moors  are  a  mixed  race.  If  this  is  the  case,  it  must,  at 
least,  be  recognised  that  the  white  blood  predominates  con- 
siderably, since  all  the  forms  belong  to  this  type.  In  order 
that  the  colour  of  the  Negro  should  be  persistent,  in  spite  of 


266  The  Human  Species. 

this  profound  Semitic  influence,  a  local  action,  that  is,  an 
action  of  the  conditions  of  life,  must  have  neutralised  the 
ordinary  laws  of  the  mixture  of  races,  and  united  the  colour 
of  one  race  with  the  features  and  forms  of  another. 

If  this  conclusion  requires  confirmation,  the  facts  quoted 
by  Prosper  Lucas  will  be  sufficient.  He  treats  of  unions 
between  Negroes  and  Whites  accomplished  in  Europe.  In 
the  same  family  we  find  the  black  blood  predominate  at 
first,  then  lose  its  influence,  and  by  degrees  become  effaced 
almost  entirely  in  the  children  of  the  later  generations.  In 
one  of  these  observations,  the  mother  belonged  to  the  black 
race ;  so  that  infidelity  was  unable  to  effect  any  change  in 
the  conditions  of  the  experiment.  It  was  then  the  conditions 
of  life  which  gradually  blanched  these  half-breeds,  who  would 
all  have  been  black  upon  the  borders  of  Senegal. 

VI.  Some  anthropologists,  although  recognising  the  multi- 
plicity and  fertility  of  the  crossings  between  human  races, 
only  see  in  this  fact  a  confusion  of  blood,  and  complain  that 
nowhere  do  they  find  a  mixed  race  of  recent  origin  which  is 
well  characterised.  Consequently  they  deny  that  the  crossing 
can  have  any  influence  in  the  formation  of  the  races  with 
mixed  but  constant  characters  which  form  part  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  globe. 

This  objection  rests  upon  a  disregard  of  the  phenomena 
which  accompany  the  formation  of  animal  races  by  the  pro- 
duction of  mongrels.  All  breeders  know  well  that  a  deter- 
minate and  settled  race  cannot  at  once  be  produced  by 
crossing.  In  such  a  case,  the  conflict  and  the  compromises, 
of  which  I  have  spoken  above,  become  more  marked,  for 
the  very  reason  that  we  have  to  blend  two  natures  which  are 
dissimilar  in  some  respects.  Immediate  and  direct  heredity 
alone  continually  produces  phenomena  oi  fusion  or  o{  juxta- 
position, or  else  causes  the  appearance  of  new  features,  the 
resultant  oi  two  Ca^evQiit  characters.  Mediate  awiX  indirect 
heredity,  as  well  as  atavism,  continually  intervene  and 
produce  numerous  irregularities  in  the  succeeding  genera^ 
tions.     The  more  the  races  differ  and  are  equal  in  respect  to 


Formalioii  of  Mixed  Human  Races.        267 

hlood,  the  more  marked  and  persistent  are  these  irregularities. 
In  1800  the  Ancon  race  still  gave  irregular  products.  For 
more  than  twenty  years  M.  Malingie  has  failed  in  settling 
his  charmois  race,  so  that  it  might  itself  serve  for  fresh 
crossinijs. 

The  clever  breeder,  whom  I  have  just  mentioned,  as  well 
as  all  other  breeders,  have  moreover  only  attained  their  end 
by  means  of  minute  car5  in  the  choice  of  the  animals  from 
which  they  breed.  Now,  between  human  races  there  can  be 
no  question  of  selection.  The  unions  have  always  taken 
place  by  chance.  Moreover,  in  the  immense  majority  of 
cases,  the  continual  intervention  of  individuals  of  pure  race 
increases,  and  prolongs  the  confusion.  This  a])sence  of 
uniformity,  which  astonishes  polygenists,  is  easily  explained 
by  those  who  only  consider  human  groups  as  races.  From  a 
general  point  of  view  it  is  very  instructive  ;  if  it  brings 
forward  diversity  of  races,  it  attests  specific  unity.  It  is 
not  between  species  that  crossing  presents  similar  phenomena. 
But  nevertheless,  through  this  disorder,  there  appear  in 
the  mixed  populations  of  our  colonies,  general  common 
characters,  which  have  attracted  the  attention  of  travellers, 
and  have  been  described. 

Moreover,  when,  in  consequence  of  some  circumstance,  the 
products  of  these  crossings  are  isolated  and  protected  from 
new  mixtures,  the  race  becomes  characterised  with  rapidity. 
The  Cafiisos,  Basters,  and  Griquas,  may  be  quoted  as  examples. 
Even  the  Pitcairn  islanders,  at  the  time  of  Beechey's  visit, 
were  beginning  t-o  become  uniform. 

VII.  In  the  crossings  between  unequal  human  races,  the 
father  almost  always  belongs  to  the  superior  race.  In  every 
case,  and  especially  in  transient  amours,  woman  refuses  to 
lower  herself ;  man  is  less  delicate. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  future  of  the  mixed  races, 
the  predominant  action  of  one  sex  over  the  product  should 
have  then  great  importance.  The  question  has  been  put 
since  the  origin  of  societies,  as  is  testified  by  the  laws  of 
Manou  ;  it  has  been  repeatedly  discussed  by  thinkers  and 


2  68  The  Human  Species. 

physiologists.  Each  sex  has  had  its  champions  ;  and  numer- 
ous facts  have  been  quoted  on  both  sides.  Considering  every- 
thing, it  appears  to  me  impossible  to  avoid  deciding  in  favour 
of  equality  of  action. 

Nevertheless  this  equality  is  purely  virtual ;  it  can,  in  fact, 
only  exist  on  the  condition  of  an  equal  generating  energy  in 
both  parents.  As  soon  as  the  equilibrium  is  interrupted,  the 
stronger  sex  predominates,  and  the  product  shows  this  supe- 
riority. The  experiments  of  Giron  de  Buzareingue  upon  the 
procreation  of  the  sexes,  appeared  to  me  to  be  most  decisive 
in  this  respect. 

Now  what  is  true  of  the  whole  of  the  organism  is  equally 
true  of  its  different  parts,  functions,  and  energies.  In  the 
formation  of  a  new  being,  the  action  of  heredity  is  divided 
into  as  many  cases  as  there  ai'e  characters  to  transmit. 
Both  father  and  mother  tend  to  reproduce  themselves  in 
their  offspring ;  there  is,  consequently,  a  struggle  between 
both  natures.  But  the  battle,  if  we  may  use  the  expression, 
results  in  a  number  of  single  combats  in  which  each  parent 
may  be  in  turn  victor  or  vanquished. 

This  very  simple  consideration,  which  is  deduced  from  a 
number  of  facts  of  detail,  explains  many  results  which  cause 
surprise  to  physiologists,  anthropologists,  etc.  After  having 
attributed  a  preponderathig  action  to  the  mother,  Nott 
declares  with  surprise,  that,  in  point  of  intelligence,  the 
Mulatto  approaches  more  to  his  white  father.  But  is  not 
the  intellectual  energy  of  the  latter  superior  to  that  of  the 
mother  ?  And  is  it  not  natural  that  it  should  gain  the 
ascendant  in  the  struggle  between  the  two  hereditary 
powers  ?  We  know  how  far  this  victory  can  go,  and  how 
the  two  natures  can,  so  to  speak,  divide  the  product  of  this 
crossing  between  them.  Lislet  Geoffroy,  entirely  a  Negro 
physically,  though  entirely  a  White  in  character,  intelligence, 
and  aptitudes,  is  a  striking  example  of  it. 

This  victory  of  the  superior  energies  is  again  shown  in 
anotlicr  very  remarkable  manner,  in  the  crossing  of  white 
and  black  races.     The  former  is,  of  all  races,  most  sensible 


Foiination  of  Mixed  Human  Races.        269 

to  malarious  influences,  the  latter  best  able  to  resist  them. 
On  this  account  it  is  almost  exempt  from  yellow  fever.  The 
Mulatto  inherits  this  double  power  of  resistance.  Nott 
assures  us  that  a  proportion  of  one  fourth  of  black  blood  is 
as  sure  a  protection  against  the  yellow  fever,  as  vaccination 
against  the  small-pox. 

We  may  now  understand,  that,  in  crossing  between  different 
races,  the  half-breeds  possess  the  characters  which,  in  each 
of  them,  predominate  over  the  corresponding  characters  of 
the  other.  If  the  energies  are  in  equilibrium,  there  will 
generally  be  a  compromise.  The  Negro  and  the  "White 
ditfer  essentially  in  colour  and  the  texture  of  the  hair ;  the 
colour  of  the  eyes  varies  almost  as  much  in  one  as  in  the 
other.  In  the  Mulatto,  the  two  first  characters  almost 
always  betray  the  double  origin  of  the  individual ;  the  third 
is  uncertain. 

On  the  contrar}',  in  half-breeds  of  the  white  and  the 
indigenous  American,  the  eyes  and  hair  are  almost  always 
derived  from  the  latter.  Humboldt  has  remarked  that  these 
two  characters  are  persistent  even  after  several  generations, 
in  unilateral  crossing  towards  the  White.  M.  Ferdinand 
Denis  recognised  a  descendant  of  the  caciques  by  the  eyes. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  same  crossings,  the  colour  of  the 
White  overcomes  that  of  the  American  at  the  second,  and 
sometimes  even  at  the  first  generation. 

The  crossing  of  the  Slav  and  the  Bouriate  presents  similar 
facts.  The  half-breeds  invariably  have  the  hair  and  eyes  of 
the  second. 

VIII.  "  In  Brazil,"  says  Martin  de  Moussy,  "  mixed  races 
of  every  origin  increase,  and  form  a  new  population  which 
becomes  more  indigenous  every  day,  if  we  may  use  the 
expression,  and  always  more  similar  to  the  white  type,  Avhich, 
accoi  ding  to  what  takes  place  in  the  whole  of  South  America, 
will,  in  the  end,  absorb  all  the  rest."  An  analogous  fact  has 
been  pointed  out  at  Buenos  Ayres,  in  Paraguay,  etc. 

Can  we  then  consider  this  result  as  a  sign  of  the 
ascendancv  of  the  white  race  ?     I  do  not  think  so.     I  rather 


270  The  Hiunait  Species. 

consider   it  as   the   consequence   of    the   general    tendency 
pointed  out  above. 

.  In  the  countries  which  we  are  discussing,  the  Negress 
or  Indian  woman  readily  crosses  with  the  White.  The  female 
issue  of  these  unions,  proud  of  the  blood  of  her  father,  would 
consider  herself  degraded  if  wedded  to  an  individual  of 
coloured  race,  and  reserves  all  her  favours  for  those  to  whom 
she  approximates  by  reason  of  the  crossing.  The  Quadroon 
reasons  and  acts  in  the  same  manner.  In  these  regions, 
where  colour  decides  caste,  it  is  always  men  of  whiter  race, 
and  especially  the  pure  white,  that  the  women  prefer  to 
marry. 

The  conseipience  of  this  is,  that  the  crossing,  although 
apparently  left  to  chance,  is  in  reality  unilateral,  and  always 
directed  towards  the  superior  race.  It  is  accomplished 
under  the  influence  of  a  real  unconscious  selection,  and 
the  predominance  of  the  white  blood  is  the  result  of  this 
selection. 

Sooner  or  later  it  will  also  result  in  the  fulfilment  of  the 
prediction  of  Martin  de  Moussy.  The  mixed  races  will  in 
a  great  measure  return  to  the  superior  race.  But,  when 
brought  back  to  the  white  type  by  this  circuitous  path,  and 
through  all  these  degrees  of  crossing,  they  will  possess  one 
very  great  advantage  over  their  European  counterpart :  they 
will  be  acclimatised. 

The  reverse  phenomena  appear,  according  to  Squiers,  to 
be  taking  place  in  Peru.  Here  the  mixed  population  tends 
to  return  to  the  indigenous  type.  The  fact  is  explained,  at 
least  in  part,  by  the  relations  which,  since  the  commencement 
of  the  conquest,  were  established  between  the  conquerors 
and  the  conquered  race. 

The  former  could  not  affect  unlimited  contempt  for  a 
conquered  race  who  were  as  civilised  as  themselves.  Their 
leaders  made  alliances  at  an  early  period  with  the  families 
of  the  Incas,  and  this  example  was  followed.  Consequently 
colour  cannot  exercise  the  same  influence  in  Peru  as  in 
Brazil  or  at  Buenos  Ayres.     The  numerical  predominance  of 


Formation  of  Mixed  Hitman  Races.        271 

the  local  race  and  the  conditions  of  life  had  then  a  free  field, 
and  their  double  influence  is  shown  in  the  result  pointed  out 
by  Squiers. 

IX.  Can  human  crossing,  so  general  in  our  days,  be  a 
new  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  mankind  ?  Evidently 
not.  In  the  past  as  in  the  present,  every  contact  between 
two  races  of  any  continuance,  every  immigration,  and  every 
conquest  has  led  to  the  formation  of  a  mixed  race.  It  is 
one  of  the  inevitable  consequences  of  human  instincts  and 
of  physiological  laws. 

It  is  quite  natural  that  polygenists  should  have  neglected 
facts  of  this  nature.  In  their  opinion  a  population  with 
'mixed  characters  is  a  species  as  much  as  any  other,  which  is 
intermediate  between  two  given  specific  types.  But  the 
indifference  or  the  mistake  of  monogenists  is  less  easily 
explained.  They  are  evidently  ignorant  of  the  phenomena 
of  crossings  among  plants  and  animals.  When  they  meet 
with  a  race  of  undecided  characters,  and  which  presents  more 
or  less  distant  analogies  with  two  different  types,  they  have 
generally  felt  embarrassed,  and  have  put  the  question  on  one 
side,  or  have  at  most  invoked  the  action  of  conditions  of  life 
in  a  vague  manner. 

It  is  quite  true  that  the  latter,  when  effecting  a  resem- 
blance between  foreign  races  and  the  local  race,  leads  to 
results  analogous  to  those  which  result  from  crossing.  We 
have  seen  an  example  of  it  in  the  United  States.  Yet 
crossing  has  its  peculiar  phenomena,  which  are  persistent 
even  after  several  generations.  Moreover,  to  the  indica- 
tions drawn  from  physical  and  physiological  characters  we 
may  add  others  borrowed  from  very  different  orders  of 
facts,  and  which,  in  many  cases,  permit  us  to  draw  a  con- 
clusion with  remarkable  certainty.  The  mixture  of  beliefs, 
customs,  and  manners  often  furnishes  valuable  informa- 
tion. But  the  comparison  of  languages  generally  throws  an 
unexpected  light  upon  problems  apparently  most  difficult. 
From  time  to  time  legends  and  history  confirm  inductions 
drawn  from  the  orders  of  facts  which  I  have  just  pointed 


272  The  Human  Species. 

out,  and  testify  to  the  correctness  of  views  wliich,  at  first 
siglit,  might  appear  conjectural. 

As  an  example  I  will  quote  the  Zulu  Kaffirs.  They  are 
one  of  the  groups  of  which  some  polygenists  make  a  distinct 
species.  They  are  in  fact  distinguished  from  other  negro 
races  by  several  characters.  But  by  these  characters  they 
are  brought  nearer  to  the  white  type.  Moreover,  various 
travellers  inform  us  that  they  present  a  great  variability  of 
feature.  Missionaries  who  have  lived  among  them  add  that, 
in  the  same  family,  and  under  conditions  which  render  all 
crossing  impossible,  individuals  are  met  with  who  have  the 
hair  and  colour  of  a  Negro,  and  others  whose  hair  is  smooth 
and  whose  colour  is  brown.  These  facts  alone  would  autho- 
rise the  conclusion  that  the  Zulus  are  a  mixed  race. 

Philology  confirms  this  conclusion.  Philologists  agree 
in  placing  the  Kaffir  languages  in  the  group  of  Zimbian 
languages,  whose  gi-ammar  and  vocabulary  are  fundamen- 
tally negro,  but  which  also  include  arab,  nilotic,  and  malgach 
elements.  Thus  language,  as  well  as  physical  characters, 
points  to  a  mixture  of  blood. 

The  chronicle  discovered  by  Captain  Guillain  justifies 
these  conclusions  by  giving  the  history  of  the  arab  colonies 
from  Quiloa  to  Sofala.  It  relates  the  wars  which  were 
raised  for  the  possession  of  the  gold  mines ;  it  shows  the 
conquerors  driving  out  the  conquered,  and  compelling  them 
to  go  southwards  to  seek  a  new  country.  It  is  evident 
that  the  latter  have  crossed  Delagoa  Bay,  where  they  have 
left  the  black  race  in  its  state  of  original  inferiority,  and 
have  gone  further  to  ally  themselves  voluntarily  or  involun- 
tarily with  tribes  whose'type  has  thus  risen. 

In  fact,  far  from  being  a  species,  the  Zulus  are  a  mixed 
race  of  Negroes  and  Arabs,  whose  formation  is  so  recent  that 
mediate  heredity  and  atavism  still  betray  the  double  origin, 
which  is  also  attested  by  philology,  but  in  which  the  negro 
element  preserves  a  very  great  superiority, 

X.  The  investigation  of  mixed  populations,  the  deter- 
mination of  the  part  played  by  each  of  the  elements  which 


Formation  of  Mixed  Human  Races.      .    273 

have  assisted  in  their  formation,  belong  to  the  most  inte- 
resting questions  of  anthropology.  This  study  ought  not  to 
stop  at  populations  in  which  the  mixture  of  characters  is 
evident  at  first  sight.  It  ought  also  to  bear  upon  those 
which  are  generally  regarded  as  quite  pure.  We  should 
then  find  that  mixture  of  races  has  penetrated  where  it  was 
scarcely  suspected. 

In  China  and  especially  in  Japan,  the  white  allophylian 
blood  is  mixed  with  the  yellow  blood  in  different  propor- 
tions ;  the  white  Semitic  blood  has  penetrated  into  the 
heart  of  Africa;  the  negro  and  houzouana  types  have 
mutually  penetrated  each  other  and  produced  all  the  Kaffir 
populations  situated  west  of  the  Zulus  of  Arabian  origin  ; 
the  Malay  races  are  the  result  of  the  amalgamation,  in 
different  proportions,  of  Whites,  Yellows,  and  Blacks;  the 
Malays  proper,  far  from  constituting  a  species,  as  polygenists 
consider  them,  are  only  one  iiopidation,  in  which,  under 
the  influence  of  Islamism,  these  various  elements  have  been 
more  completely  fused,  etc. 

I  have  quoted  at  random  the  various  preceding  ex- 
amples, to  show  how  the  most  extreme  types  of  mankind 
have  contributed  to  form  a  certain  number  of  races.  Need 
I  insist  upon  the  mixtures  which  have  been  accomplished 
between  the  secondary  types  derived  from  the  first  ?  In 
Europe  what  population  can  pretend  to  purity  of  blood  ? 
The  Basques  themselves,  who  apparently  ought  to  be  well 
protected  by  their  country,  institutions,  and  language  against 
the  invasion  of  foreign  blood,  show  upon  certain  points,  in 
the  heart  of  their  mountains,  the  evident  traces  of  the 
juxtaposition  and  fusion  of  very  different  races. 

As  for  the  other  nations  ranging  from  Lapland  to  the 
Mediterranean,  classical  history,  although  it  does  not  go 
back  a  great  distance  in  point  of  time,  is  a  sufficient  proof 
that  crossings  are  the  inevitable  result  of  invasions,  wars, 
and  political  and  social  events.  Asia  presents,  as  we  know, 
the  same  spectacle ;  and,  in  the  heart  of  Africa,  the  Jagas, 
playing    the    part   of    the    hordes    of    Gengis-Khan,   have 


2  74  The  Human  Species. 

mixed  together  the  African  tribes  from  one  ocean  to  the 
other. 

XL  I  need  scarcely  allude  here  to  the  general  facts  which 
follow  from  the  detailed  history  of  races.  Short  though  it 
be,  this  appeal  to  the  reader's  memory  Avill,  I  hope,  give  a 
sufficient  motive  for  the  following  conclusions. 

Conditions  of  life  and  heredity  have  fashioned  the  first 
human  races,  a  certain  number  of  which,  on  account  of  their 
isolation,  have  been  able  to  preserve  for  an  indefinite  time 
this  first  characteristic. 

Perhaps  it  was  during  this  very  distant  period  that  the 
three  great  types  of  the  Negro,  the  Yellow,  and  the  White 
Avere  characterised. 

The  migratory  and  conquering  instincts  of  man  have 
brought  about  a  meeting  between  these  primary  races,  and 
consequently  a  crossing  between  them. 

Since  the  appearance  of  mixed  races,  crossing  itself  has 
only  acted  under  the  domination  of  the  conditions  of  life 
and  heredity. 

The  great  movements  of  nations  have  only  taken  place 
at  long  intervals,  and  as  it  were  form  so  many  crises.  In 
the  interval  between  these  crises,  the  races  which  have 
been  formed  by  the  crossing  have  had  time  to  settle  and 
become  uniform. 

The  consolidation  of  the  mixed  races,  the  relative  uni- 
formity of  characters  effected  by  the  crossing,  have  taken 
place  very  slowly,  in  consequence  of  the  absolute  want  of 
selection.  Consequently  every  mixed  race  which  has  become 
upiform  is  also  very  ancient. 

Human  instincts  have  produced  the  mixture  of  mixed 
races,  just  as  they  have  produced  that  of  the  primary 
races. 

Every  mixed  race,  when  uniform  and  settled,  has  been 
able  to  play  the  part  of  a  primary  race  in  fresh  crossings- 
Mankind,  in  its  present  state,  has  thus  been  formed,  certainly 
for  the  greatest  part,  by  the  successive  crossing  of  a  number 
of  races  at  present  undetermined. 


Formation  of  Mixed  Human  Races.         275 

The  most  ancient  races  which  we  know,  the  quaternary 
races,  are  still  represented  in  our  own  days,  either  by 
populations  generally  small  in  number,  or  by  isolated  indi- 
viduals, in  whom  atavism  reproduces  the  characters  of 
our  remote  ancestors.  This  is  a  fact  which  will  be  proved 
further  on. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

INFLUENCE   OF   CROSSING   UPON   MIXED   HUMAN   RACES. 

I.  Has  the  crossing  of  human  races  been,  or  will  it  be, 
advantageous  or  detrimental  to  the  species  considered  as  a 
whole  ?  The  followers  of  Morton  in  America,  and  of  MM.  de 
Gobineau  and  Perrier  in  France,  have  stated  that  human 
crossing  had,  or  would  have  in  the  future,  disastrous  conse- 
quences. Has  this  opinion  an}'  foundation  ?  Let  us  study 
the  facts. 

M.  Gobineau  appeals  to  history,  and  goes  back  to  the 
earliest  ages  of  mankind.  According  to  him,  three  funda- 
mental races,  the  blq,ck,  the  yellow,  and  the  white,  were 
formed  originally.  The  yellow  race  occupied  the  whole  of 
America ;  the  negro  race  all  the  southern  parts  of  the  old 
continent  as  far  as  the  Caspian  Sea ;  the  white  race  was 
localised  in  Central  Asia.  The  two  former,  degraded  from 
an  intellectual  and  moral  as  well  as  from  a  physical  point  of 
view,  and  unable  to  elevate  themselves  unaided  above  the 
savage  state,  only  existed  as  tribes.  The  third  was  the  only 
one  which  united  bodily  beauty  with  a  warlike  spirit,  to  the 
faculty  of  initiative,  of  organization  and  progress,  which  gives 
rise  to  societies  and  to  civilization.  The  day  came  when  the 
yellow  race  burst  upon  Asia,  and,  avoiding  the  central  region 
occupied  by  the  whites,  went  to  people  the  western  regions 
of  the  old  world.  Then,  this  wave,  continuing  its  course, 
submerged  the  white  race,  which,  in  its  turn,  began  to 
emigrate ;  and  by  the  mixture  of  its  blood  with  that  of  the 
inferior  races,  produced  all  the  peoples  who  have  succeeded 
each  other  upon  the  earth.  At  the  beginning  of  this  new 
era,  the  white  blood,  being  more  pure  and  more  abundant, 


Injluence  of  Crossing.  277 

produced  superior  civilizations.  Becoming  rarer  at  each  new 
emigration,  it  lost  its  influence,  and  civilization  diminished 
in  every  respect.  The  last  effort  of  this  renovating  race  was 
the  Germanic  invasion  Avhich  destroyed  the  Roman  world. 
It  is  now  exhausted.  The  white  blood,  vitiated  by  the 
mixture,  has  everywhere  lost  its  first  efficacy.  Mankind  for 
this  very  reason  is  in  a  full  decline.  The  fusion  will  soon  be 
complete.  Every  individual  will  have  in  his  veins  one- 
third  of  white  blood  and  two-thirds  of  coloured  blood,  and 
we  shall  then  inevitably  return  to  barbarism.  Finally,  the 
repeated  crossings  will  have  rendered  the  human  species 
barren  ;  it  will  then  die  out  and  disappear. 

Such  is,  in  a  few  words,  the  theory  of  M.  de  Gobineau. 
Let  us  accept  it  with  all  its  hypotheses,  including  that  of 
the  migration  from  America  to  Asia,  which  is  contrary  to 
all  our  knowledge  upon  this  point.  Does  it  follow  that 
the  author  is  consistent?  In  order  to  be  so,  he  ought  to 
point  out  the  privileged  race,  founding  by  itself  one  at  least 
of  those  great  societies,  one  of  those  civilizations,  as  M.  de 
Gobineau  calls  them,  recorded  by  history.  Now  the  author 
is  unable  to  point  out  a  single  example,  and  is  obliged  to 
admit  that  the  exclusively  tvhite  civilization  has  existed  in 
Central  Asia  without  leaving  any  other  trace  than  the 
tumuli  which  have  for  a  long  time  been  attributed  to 
Scythians,  Tchoudes,  etc.  But  everyone  knoAvs  the  state 
of  the  whites,  when  they  left  their  Asiatic  centre.  In  India 
they  were  the  Aryans,  still  a  half-pastoral  race ;  in  Europe, 
the  barbarians  who  destroyed  the  Roman  world.  Had  either 
of  them  a  civilization  equal  to  that  of  the  Egyptians  or  the 
Greeks  ? 

M.  de  Gobineau  enumerates  ten  civilizations,  namely, 
Assyrian,  Indian,  Chinese,  Egyptian,  Greek,  Italian'  German,' 
AUeghanian,  Mexican,  and  Peruvian.  All,  according  to  him^ 
were  produced  in  consequence  of  the  mixture  of  whites 
with  coloured  races.  But  admitting  that  such  has  been 
the  case,  is  it  not  evident  that  this  mixture  has  everywhere 
given  rise  to  an  immense  progress.     The  ruins  of  Nineveh 


27S  The  II u man  Species. 

Tliebes,  Athens,  Rome,  and  even  tbose  of  Palanquo,  certainly 
point  to  p)pulations  of  a  different  civilization  to  that  of  the 
people  who  raised  the  tumuli  in  Central  Asia. 

In  order  to  draw  their  logical  consequences  from  the 
facts  which  he  admits  or  supposes,  M.  de  Gobineau  should 
regard  the  formation  of  half-breeds  as  the  most  powerful 
element  of  progress.  As  we  have  seen  he  adopts  the 
opposite  opinion.  He  considers  that  all  these  civilizations, 
which  were  splendid  in  the  case  of  the  Assyrians  and 
Egyptians,  have  been  dwindling  away  and  diminishing, 
and  what  remains  in  our  own  days,  only  deserves  our 
scorn. 

Without  being  blinded  by  self-conceit,  we  may  protest 
af'aiust  this  conclusion.  Doubtless  \vc  no  longer  raise 
towers  of  Babel,  nor  do  we  build  pyramids.  Gigantic 
Avorks  which  are  useless,  or  undertaken  for  the  glorification 
of  a  single  man,  do  not  belong  to  our  time.  But  when 
some  generally  useful  work  arises,  do  we  recoil  before  the 
magnitude  of  the  task  ?  The  time  truly  has  been  badly 
chosen  to  accuse  \is  of  feebleness.  The  Suez  Canal  has 
]>cen  made  on  a  different  scale  to  the  small  trench  of  the 
Pharaohs,  and  in  tunnelling  the  Alps  for  a  railway,  we 
have  accomplished  what  antiquity  had  never  dared  to 
dream  of. 

It  is  still  true  that,  taken  cu  masse,  we  are  less  artistic 
than  the  Athenians.  But  without  leaving  the  domain  of 
tlie  art.s,  there  are  points  in  which  we  surpa.ss  them.  To 
judge  from  the  anecdotes  which  throw  light  upon  the 
nature  of  the  tak-nt  of  their  greatest  artists,  painting  and 
music  among  the  (jreeks  were  not  up  to  the  level  of 
Kculptuff.  1 1  \\i-  have  not  our  I'hidias,  they  had  not  their 
Ilaphael,  th<ir  .Micha<l  Angolo,  tlicir  Beethoven,  nor  their 
U4)ssini. 

But,  when  he  condemns  us  to  a  radical  inferiority,  M. 
(ic  Gobineau  cRpocially  forgets  the  most  striking  character 
of  modern  times.  He-  «li.sregards  the  ncicvtijic  ihvdopment, 
whicli  is  without  example  or  analogy  in  the  past,  and  which 


lujliicnce  of  Crossing.  279 

f^ivos  ail  absolutely  fresh  appearance  to  our  civilization.  We 
who  are  sprung  from  races  crossed  a  huiitlrcd  times,  are  at 
least  the  equals  of  our  forefathers,  but  no  longer  resemble 
them.  Inferior  in  some  respects,  we  make  up  for  it 
thoroui^lily  in  other  respects.  We  manifest  human  power 
under  different  aspects. 

Highly  gifted  though  man  may  be,  he  cannot  at  once 
reacli  all  the  limits  of  the  field  which  is  open  to  his  activity- 
For  this  reason,  in  time  as  well  as  in  space,  we  find  by  the 
side  of  inferior  peoples  and  raceA,  other  peoples  and  races 
which  are  superior,  c(|ual  among  themselves,  but  diflfefent. 
Such  is  the  real  information  gained  by  a  comparison  of  the 
present  and  past  condition  of  mankind. 

II.  M.  Perrier  is  a  polygenist  and  an  autochthonist ;  he 
makes  use  of  the  expression  'pure  race  as  equivalent  to  the 
term  upecies.  Being  a  physician,  and  a  learned  one,  he 
touches  upon  anatomical  and  physiological  questions,  and 
upon  the  limited  fertility  and  sterility  of  half-breeds,  and 
reproduces  some  of  the  opinions  which  I  have  already  at- 
taxiked.  He  pays  particular  attention  to  present  popula- 
tions, and  endeavours  to  prove  the  superiority  of  those  which 
he  regards  as  pure.  He  (piotes  the  Arabd  in  particular, 
and  praises  their  ancient  and  modern  civilizations.  But  on 
this  point  I  make  the  same  ol>jection  to  him  which  I  made  to 
M.  de  Ciobineau.  We  know  very  little  of  the  Himyarites  and 
the  Adite.s.  Caussin  de  Perceval  shows  them  to  have  played 
at  different  times  the  part  of  conquerors ;  but  they  were 
conquerors  who  were  barbarians,  and  whose  manners  were 
thoroughly  savage.  When  they  left  their  deserts  under  the 
impulse  of  Islamism,  did  they  appear  with  the  marks  of  civi- 
lized peoples  ?  Certainly  not.  It  wa.s  only  after  their  con- 
quests, and  in  con.sequence  of  the  crossings  which  they  under- 
went, that  we  fin<l  the  great  Arabian  civilizations  rise  in 
.\frica,  Asia,  and  in  Spain.  Was  the  civilization,  which 
was  developed  upon  the  .spot,  and  which  has  been  brought 
to  light  by  Palgrave,  equal  to  that  of  the  Almohades,  the 
Almoravides,  or  the  Abassides  ?  Evidently  not.  Here, 
13 


2 So  The  Human  Species. 

again,  crossing  is  fuuml  to  have  given  rise  to  most  striking 
progress. 

M.  Perritr  lays  especial  stress  upon  physical  perfection, 
and  particularly  upon  that  of  women.  Let  us  accept  this 
criterion.  Is  purity  of  blood  the  sole  cause  of  this  beauty  ? 
If  this  were  so,  in  the  same  country,  the  purest  populations 
.should  show  the  fairest  women.  But  in  France,  for  example, 
the  inhabitants  of  Auvcrgne,  secluded  among  their  mountains, 
are  uiuloubtedly  of  a  purer  race  than  the  inhabitants  of  the 
])lains  in  Southern  France,  where  so  many  different  races 
have  come  in  contact.  Well,  can  the  women  of  Upper 
Auvergne  dispute  the  prize  with  the  grisette  of  Aries, 
Toulouse,  or  of  Alontpellier?  Tiiese  three  feminine  types 
are  very  distinct ;  they  clearly  pi^nt  to  a  mi.xture  of  blood. 
They  are  not  the  le.ss  remarkable  in  the  matter  of  beauty, 
and  are  undoubtedly  su])erior  to  the  women  of  Auvergne. 
In  Sicily,  where  all  the  Mediterranean  populations  are  con- 
fused together,  I  have  observed  analogous  facts  at  Taurmina, 
Palermo,  Trapani,  etc. 

As  to  the  possibility  of  meeting  with  women  remarkable 
for  their  personal  attractions  among  mi.veil  races,  even  when 
the  Negro  enters  as  an  element  in  their  composition,  the  re- 
j)utation  of  women  of  colour,  mulattoes  and  quadroons,  is  a 
sufticient  proof.  All  travellers  bear  witness  to  the  charm 
which  they  exerci.se  upon  Europeans.  'J'aylor  is  most  ex- 
plicit upon  this  point,  and  it  is  at  Tristan  d'Acunha,  a 
distant  island  half  way  between  the  Caj)e  and  South 
America,  that  he  makes  his  observations.  In  this  i.solateil 
K|>ot,  a  mi.xed  population  of  Whites  aiid  Negroes  has  settleil. 
The  Knglish  traveller  speaks  us  follows  :  "  All  wlio  are  born 
in  the  ihlund  aVe  mulattoe.s,  though  of  a  vi-ry  slightly  pro- 
nounc(Ml  tyjie,  anil  of  very  line  proportions.  Almost  all  have 
the  European,  much  more  than  tlic  Negro  type.  I  do  not 
recollect  ever  having  He(;n  such  splendid  heads  and  figures 
iw  among  their  young  giiLs.  And  yet  I  know  all  the  coasts 
of  tlie  earth  :  liali  and  its  Malays,  Havana  and  its  Creoles, 
Tahiti   and   its  nymphs,  autl   the    Tnilc  I    Slates  with  their 


Iiijliicncc  of  Crossing.  2S1 

distinguished  women."  It  is  evident  that  we  here  have  a 
most  impartial  judgment  in  favour  of  muhittoes,  and  given 
l»y  an  experienced  judge. 

Thu.s  female  beauty  is  met  with  among  certain  mixed 
races,  and  is  wanting  among  other  races  which  are  rightly 
regarded  a.s  the  purest,  the  Bosjesmans  and  the  Es(juimaux. 
The  adversaries  of  human  crossings  cannot  then  re<;ard  it 
a.s  an  argument  in  their  favour. 

III.  Although  modern  crossings  only  go  back  three 
centuries,  they  have  already  produced  results  which  make 
it  certain  that  races  remarkable  from  every  point  of  view 
may  be  produced  by  crossing.  The  Paulists  of  Brazil  are 
a  striking  example  of  the  fact.  Tiie  province  of  Saint  Paul 
has  been  peopled  by  Portuguese  and  inhabitants  of  the 
Azores  from  the  old  world,  who  have  formed  alliances  with 
the  Gayanazes,  a  hunting  and  pacific  tribe,  and  with  the 
Carijos,  who  are  warlike  and  agricultural.  From  these 
unions,  which  have  been  regularly  contracted,  there  has 
sprung  a  race  whose  men  have  always  been  remarkable 
for  their  tine  proportions,  their  physical  power,  indomit-* 
able  courage,  and  endurance  of  fatigue.  As  for  the 
women,  their  beauty  has  given  rise  to  a  Brazilian  proverb 
which  proves  their  superiority.  This  population  shows  its 
pre-eminence  in  every  respect.  If  it  was  once  remarkable 
for  the  expeditions  of  a*l  venturers  in  search  of  gold  or  slaves, 
it  was  also  the  first  to  ]>lant  the  sugar-cane  in  lirazil,  and  to 
breed  immen.se  herds  of  cattle.  "  In  the  present  day,"  savs 
F.  Deni.s,  "  the  highest  moral  development  as  well  as  the 
juost  remarkable  intellectual  movements  appear  to  come 
irom  Saint  Paul." 

Such  praises  paid  to  a  j)opulation  which  is  almost 
entirely  the  result  of  a  mixture  of  races,  by  a  sagacious 
observer,  who  luis  long  lived  in  Brazil,  form  a  contra.st  to 
the  reproaches  cast  upon  American  half-breeds  by  an  im- 
mense majority  of  travellers.  As  a  general  rule  they  arc 
J  tainted  in  the  blackest  colours.  Although  they  are  allowed 
to  possess  physical  bea\ity,  and  porhai>s  also  a  prompt  and 


282  The  HuDiaii  Species. 

ready  intelligence,  they  are  said  to  bo  almost  entirely  without 
morality.  Let  us  admit  that  they  differ  as  much  from  the 
Pauli.sts  in  this  respect  as  has  been  stated  :  the  explanation 
of  the  contrast  is  not  difficult  to  find. 

At  Saint  Paul,  the  earliest  unions  -were  from  the  first 
regularly  contracted,  thanks  to  the  intervention  of  Fathers 
Nobrega  and  Anchieta.  In  consequence  of  different  cir- 
cumstances, the  mamahicos,  who  -were  the  result  of  these 
marriages,  were  at  once  accepted  as  the  equals  of  the  pure 
Whites.  Here  the  crossing  then  was  accomplished  under 
normal  conditions,  a  fact,  perhaps,  unique  in  the  history  of 
our  colonics. 

In  reality,  the  mixture  of  races  elsewhere  owes  its  origin  to 
the  worst  passions  ;  prejudices  of  blood  have  caused  half- 
breeds  to  be  regarded  as  tainted  by  the  vice  to  which  they 
owed  their  origin,  as  outcasts  from  socieiy,  or  one  might  .say, 
outlaued.  Now  what  branch  of  the  pure  white  race  being 
bom,  growing,  and  thriving  under  contempt  and  oppression, 
would  [)reserve  an  elevated  and  moral  character  ?  Moreover, 
would  the  white  fathers  furnish  examples  capable  of 
influencing  for  goo<l  the  children  which  they  had  aban- 
doned ?  The  contrary  is  evidently  the  case.  Unrestrained 
deljauchery  on  one  side,  and  servile  submi.ssion  on  the  other, 
arc  the  elements  in  the  production  of  a  half-breed  race. 
What  could  heredity  transmit  in  the  way  of  moral  character 
to  the  products  of  such  unions  ? 

If  anything  should  surpri.se  uk,  it  is  that  half-breeds  pro- 
duced under  such  detestable  conditions  should  already  have 
been  able  lo  raise  themselves.  Now  this  has  happened, 
even  with  the  mulattocs,  in  all  ea.ses  where  prejudices  of 
race  hav<!  been  less  deeply  rooted,  and  have  yielded  to  per- 
Honal  merit.  In  Hra/il,  most  of  the  arti.sts  and  nuisieians  arc 
muluttocH,  Hay  M.M.  Troyer  and  do  Li.sboa.  In  confirMi.itiun 
of  this  testimony.  M.  liiigos  added  that  tlu;  jxditicrd  e.ipacity 
••md  scientifu;  instinct  arc;  HCiire«dy  less  developed  jiniong  theui 
than  artistic  aptitude.  Several  are  dttctors  and  medical  prac- 
titionem  of  the  higliest  distinction.     Lastly,  M.  'J'orres  Ca'icedo 


Injliicncc  of  Crossing.  283 

pnumcratcd  to  me  among  tlic  mulattocs  of  liis  country,  orators, 
j>octs,  public  men,  and  a  vicc-prcsiilcnt  of  New  Cirennda,  -Nvho 
was  at  the  same  time  a  distinguished  author. 

If  the  case  is  not  the  same  where  a  social  condemnation 
weighs  upon  the  man  of  colour,  the  reason  is  that  the  moral 
and  social  conditions  of  life  never  lose  their  rights  any  more 
than  the  physical  conditions.  But  the  preceding  will,  I 
think,  be  a  sut^cient  proof  that,  when  placed  under  normal 
conditions,  the  half-breed  of  the  Negro  and  the  European 
would  certainly  justify  in  every  place  the  words  of  the  old 
traveller  Thevcnot :  "The  mulatto  can  do  all  that  the  white 
man  can  do ;  liis  intelligence  is  equal  to  ours." 

IV.  Althnugli  I  pnitest  against  the  doctrines  which  tend 
to  depreciate  mixed  races,  I  am  far  from  pretending  that  the 
cro.ssing  is  at  all  times  and  in  all  places  fortunate.  Un- 
doubtedly, if  the  union  has  taken  place  between  inferior 
races,  the  product  will  remain  at  the  level  of  the  parents. 
But  these  unions  are  few  in  number.  Even  in  South 
America,  the  Zambo  is  relatively  rare.  The  Negro  appear- 
ing everywhere  in  slavery,  has  been  despised  by  the  indi- 
genous population.s,  who,  in  spite  of  their  dependent  condition, 
have  preserved  their  individual  liberty,  and  have  avoided 
union  with  the  Negro. 

It  is  the  White  who,  impelled  by  his  restless  ardour,  has 
invadetl  the  world,  and  is  every  day  multiplying  his  conquests 
and  colonies.  It  is  he  who  has  .searched  out  the  home  of  the 
coloured  race.^  and  who  everywhere  mingles  his  blood  with 
their  own.  Almost  all  the  half-breed  populations  recognize 
him  as  their  father,  and  this  gives  ri.se  to  a  double  result. 
I'hese  races  are  at  once  raised  above  the  maternal  race,  and 
the  two  brought  clo.ser  together,  as  if  they  pos.sessed  a 
common  element 

Will  this  connection  extend  as  far  as  fusion,  as  Serres  and 
Maury  have  admitted  ?  Will  all  our  present  races  sooner 
or  later  be  replaced  by  a  single  homogeneous  race,  every- 
where endowed  with  the  sanie  aptitudes  and  governed  by  a 
(oiiiiiHin  eivili/.atioti  ?     I  do  not  think  so;  and  what  has  just 


2 84  Tlw  Ilnniaii  Species. 

been  said  justifies  the  statement  tluvt  tliis  uiiiforniity  is  ini- 
possiljlo. 

Doubtless  the  mixture  of  races,  favoured  ami  multiplied 
by  the  growing  facility  of-  communication,  appears  to  me  to 
prepare  a  new  era.  The  races  of  the  future,  differing  less 
in  blood,  and  brought  together  by  railways  and  steamers, 
will  have  far  more  inclinations,  Avants,  and  interests  in 
common.  Hence  a  state  of  things  will  rise  superior  to  that 
with  which  we  are  acquainted,  although  our  civilization 
ought,  it  seems  to  mc,  to  continue  growing  in  spite  of  present 
evils  and  approaching  storms.  We  know  how  the  Greek, 
Roman,  and  the  modern  world  were  developed  in  succession  ; 
the  modern  future  will  embrace  the  entire  globe. 

But,  although  this  civilization  ■will  become  more  general 
and  more  widely  spread,  it  will  not  suppress  certain  ditfcr- 
cnces  in  the  conditions  of  life.  As  long  as  there  are  j)oles  and 
an  equator,  continents  and  islands,  or  mountains  and  plains, 
races  will  exist  distinguished  by  chai-acters  of  every  kind, 
and  superior  or  inferiur  in  a  ])hysical,  intellectual,  and  moral 
point  of  view.  In  spite  of  cro.ssings,  varieties  and  inequalities 
will  continue.  But  as  a  whole,  mankind  will  be  perfected  ; 
it  will  have  grown  ;  and  the  civilizations  of  the  future,  with- 
out causing  those  of  the  ]»a.st  to  be  forgotten,  will  outstrip 
them  in  some  as  yet  uiikiKtwn  (linction,  just  as  ours  have 
outstripped  those  of  our  predecessors. 


V.  I  have  just  closed  the  statement  of  tlir  most  general 
(jui.'stions  raised  by  the  history  (jf  the  human  race. 

The  ])rineipal  point  to  determine  is  the  vu\hj  ux  the 
inultijAicitt/  of  ike  Hpccies.  There  are  some  anthropologists, 
even  nn'ti  of  hi;^h  distinction,  who  regard  it  as  almost  an  idli; 
fjuestion,  a.s  nuicly  a  (juestion  of  dngma  or  of  ])liilosophy. 
NcvertheU-HH,  a  little  reHection  is  sufTuient  to  make  it  intel- 
ligible, that  the  scicnr*'  is  entirely  changed  acronling  jus  it 
is  ri'ganled  from  a  monn^^ciiist's  or  a  pidygenist's  point  of 
view.  1  have  already  iM)int(ul  out  this  fact ;  and  beg  permis- 
sion to  rctunj  to  it  in  a  few  word.n. 


Injhicncc  of  Crossing.  285 

After  tlie  fundanK'iital  question  of  unity  conies  that  of 
<t)itiqn'(ty.  This  is  put  similarly  in  the  two  doctrines.  But 
the  problem  is  simple  and  absolute  for  tlie  monogenist,  but 
multiple  and  relative  for  the  polygenist 

The  qiiCHtlon  of  the  j^^'^^ce  of  or'uj'in,  which  next  presents 
itself,  only  exists  in  reality  for  the  believer  in  the  specific 
unity  of  human  groups.  The  doctrine  of  autochthonisni, 
though  greatly  multiplying  the  question,  reduces  it  to  very 
-imple  terms,  since  it  declares  that  all  the  populations  were 
born  upon  the  spot  whose  foreign  origin  it  does  not  establish, 
and  only  admits  movements  of  expansion. 

For  the  polygenist  the  general  question  of  migrations 
does  not  exist.  For  particular  cases  autochthonisni  supplies 
everything.  He  who  regards  the  Polynesians  as  having 
appeared  on  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  lias  not  to  seek  whence 
they  might  have  come. 

The  question  of  acclimatisation  for  the  polygenist  is 
reduced  to  a  small  number  of  facts  almost  exclusively 
modern,  human  populations  being  in  his  eyes  naturally 
formed  for  living  under  the  conditions  of  life  in  which  they 
were  born. 

The  question  of  the  formation  of  races  disappears  entirely 
for  the  polygenist,  since  the  different  species  admitted  by 
him  have  api)earcd  with  all  the  characters  which  distinguish 
the  ditVerent  human  groups.  At  most  lie  has  to  concern 
himself  with  the  results  of  some  modern  crossings  which  are 
too  evident  to  be  denied. 

The  question  of  primitive  man  does  not  exist  for  the 
polygenist,  since  he  recognizes  all  his  species  with  the 
characters  wiiicli  they  have  had  from  the  commencement. 

No  one,  I  think,  will  dispute  the  truth  of  these  proposi- 
tions, which  compel  the  conclusion  that  anthropology  is  an 
entirely  ditTerent  science  to  the  monogenist  and  the  poly- 
genist. 

l^olygenism  seems  to  simplify  the  science  in  a  singular 
manner  ;  it  will  be  said  that  it  suppresses  its  most  apparent 
ditlicultics.     In  reality  it  only  docs  so  by  veiling  or  denying 


-56  The  II Hit  tan  Species. 

them,  and  thus  conduces  to  inaccuracy.  At  the  same  time 
it  gives  rise  to  others,  which,  althoui^'h  less  easily  perceived, 
are  nevertheless  more  important,  lor  they  are  essentially  of 
a  physiological  nature,  and  cannot  be  solved  l>y  the  general 
laws  of  physiology. 

Monogcnism  seems  at  first  to  complicate  and  multiply 
the  problems.  In  reality  it  only  states  them  clearly.  By 
that  very  means,  it  causes  the  necessity  of  long  and  per- 
severing studies  to  be  felt,  which  it  rewards  from  time 
to  time  with  great  discoveries.  It  has  required  almost  a 
century  and  the  combined  efforts  of  travellers,  geographers, 
physicians,  linguists,  and  anthropologists  to  establish  the 
origin  of  the  Polynesians,  to  follow  their  migrations,  and  to 
determine  the  date  of  them.  But  when  this  work  is  once 
set  on  the  right  track,  human  history  is  found  to  be  enriched 
by  a  magnificent  page,  which  gives  another  testimony  to 
the  intelligent  activity  of  the  human  race  and  its  conquests 
over  nature. 


BOOK   YIII. 

FOSSIL    HUMAN    RACES. 
CHAPTER    XXV. 

GENERAL    OUSERVATIONS. 

I.  Tertiary  man  is  only  known  to  us  from  a  few  faint 
traces  of. his  industry.  Of  tertiary  man  himself  we  know 
nothing.  Portions  of  his  skeleton  have  been  discovcrcJ 
from  time  to  time,  it  has  been  thought,  in  France,  Switzer- 
land, and  especially  in  Italy.  Closer  study  has,  however, 
always  forced  us  to  refer  to  a  comparatively  mucii  later 
[)eriud  these  human  remains,  Avhich,  at  first  sight,  were 
regarded  a.s  tertiary. 

It  is  different  with  (juaiciiiaiy  innn.  We  have  much 
better  and  more  precise  information  about  him  than  about 
many  existing  races.  The  caves  which  he  inhabited,  those  in 
which  he  binied  his  dead,  and  the  alluvial  deposits  formed 
by  rivers,  which  have  borne  away  his  corpses,  have  preserved 
numerous  bones  for  our  study.  As  many  as  forty  different 
places  in  all,  especially  in  the  western  portion  of  Europe, 
have  supplied  our  museums  with  as  many  as  forty  skulls, 
more  or  less  intact,  and  numerous  fragments  of  the  cranium 
and  face,  which  science  has  been  able  to  utilize,  as  well  as  a 
-rcat  nvmiber  of  the  bones  of  the  trunk  and  limbs,  and  even 
some  entire  skeletons.  The  most  remarkable  specimen,  freed 
from  the  earth  which  covered  it,  but  still  left  in  its  place,  was 
brought  from  Meutone  by  M.  Riviere  and  is  now  to  be  seen 
in  the  Anthropological  Gallery  of  the  Paris  Museum. 


288  The  Human  Species. 

Sucli  is  llie  accumulation  of  facts,  aht-udy  very  consider- 
able, which  M.  Haniy  and  I  have  consulted  in  arranging  the 
first  part  of  our  Crania-Edtnica.  The  importance  of  the 
skull  in  anthropology  is  well  known.  It  is  of  itself  sufficient 
to  furnish  the  principal  elements  of  the  distinction  of  human 
races.  The  study  and  comparison  of  quaternary  skulls 
enables  us,  therefore,  to  form  a  tolerably  definite  conception 
of  these  ancient  populations,  of  the  principal  relations  and 
most  striking  differences  which,  from  this  period,  have  dis- 
tinguished human  groups.  The  examination  of  the  bones  of 
the  trunk  and  limbs  tends,  moreover,  to  confirm  the  results 
furnished  b}'  that  of  the  skull.  Thus  we  feel  ourselves 
justified  in  expressing  the  hope  that  the  future,  by  com- 
pleting our  work  in  many  respects,  by  modifying  it  ])erhnps  in 
others,  and  by  filling  up  gaps  in  it,  will  at  hast  ((Hiliiiii  the 
essential  conclusions. 

It  is  evident  that  I  here  speak  in  M.  llaniy's  name  as 
well  as  my  own.  The  truth  i.s,  that  what  I  am  al»out  to  say 
on  the  subject  of  fo.ssil  man  is  almo.st  the  summary,  not  only 
(»f  our  book,  but  of  many  other  general  studies  and  <jf  many 
di.scussions.  It  belongs,  in  fact,  as  much  to  my  coadjutor  a.s 
to  myself. 

II.  Let  us,  in  the  first  plac(>,  briefly  describe  the  rlini;i(e  in 
whifh  the  fossil  human  races  lived. 

Till'  (|Maternary  or  glacial  period  imposed  .severe  conditions 
of  existence  on  man.  What  then  existed  of  Europe  was 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  sea,  and  was  subject  to  all  the 
conscfjiienccs  of  an  insular  climate,  that  is  to  say,  it  wjus  very 
tlamp,  and  moderately  uniform  in  temperature,  but  chilKd, 
to  a  great  extent  at  least,  by  the  Polar  ice  which  extendecl 
even  into  France.  The  heavy  rains,  fre(|neiit  in  ;dl  se;isons, 
took  the  form  of  falls  of  snow  upon  the  high  lands,  and 
.supported  vast  glaciers,  the  traces  of  whi<h  may  still  be 
Heen  in  all  our  mountain  chains.  Immense  water-courses 
hollowed  out  valleys  in  some  parts,  and  deposited  thick  beds 
of  alluvium  in  others.  This  vexed  and  \\atery  land  supp(»rled 
a   fauna   comprising,  ]»esidc.s  existing  .species,  others  whirh 


Fossil  Human  Races.  289 

liavc  partly  disappcarc<l,  partly  emigrated  to  distant  countries. 
Tims,  on  tlie  one  hand,  there  were  the  mammoth  {eh' plain 
priinitjrniu.s),  the  \YOolly  rlunoccros  (rliinoceros  tickorhinufi), 
the  gigantic  Irish  elk  (megaceros  hibernicua),  the  cave  bear 
{ursus  spela'us),  the  cave  hyaena  (hyccna  speloia),  the  cave 
tiger  ifclis  spclaa),  the  horse  {eqiins  cahallun)  ;  on  the  other 
hand,  ihe  reindeer  (ccrvus  tarandus),  the  elk  (cei'vus  alces), 
the  musk  ox  ((Wihos  moschatus),  the  aurochs  {bison  europccu.'<}, 
the  hippopotamus  {hippojwtdnnis  aviphibius),  and  the  lion 
{/dis  U'o  siyelcva). 

All  these  animals  lived  side  by  side  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  quaternary  period.  They  afterwards  became  by 
di'grees  either  extinct  or  separated.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  present  period,  France,  in  which  at  one  time  they 
were  all  to  be  found,  only  retains  the  horse ;  and  we  must 
admit  further,  with  M.  Toussaint,  that  our  beasts  of  bm-den 
and  draught,  arc  descended  from  fossil  species,  an  opinion 
which  is  far  from  universal  amongst  palaiontologists.  We 
may  remark  in  passing,  that  the  same  uncertainty  exists 
upon  the  subject  of  the  spotted  hyocna  and  the  grizzly  bear, 
regarded  by  some  palaeontologists  as  races  referable  to  the 
cave  species. 

Man  was,  in  Europe,  the  contemporary  of  all  these  species. 

The  phenomena  which  have  given  to  these  countries  their 
latest  characters,  have  not  always  had  the  same  violence,  nor 
have  they  either  commenced  or  terminated  abruptly.  They 
offered  periods  of  repose  and  of  relative  activity,  till  the 
time  when  the  continents  a.s.sumed  their  definite  proportions, 
when  the  glaciers  were  first  confined  within  their  present 
limits. 

The    modifications   of    living    beings    acconl    with    these 
-scillations  of  the  inorganic  world.     The  princijjal  animal 
spicics    seem    to   predominate    in    turn ;    the    human    races 
appear  in  succession,  increa.se  and  decline. 

During  the  deposition  of  the  loner  alluvium  (has  niveaux) 
of  our  valleys,  the  mammoth,  rhinoceros,  and  gieat  carnivora, 
seem  t<<  have  played  the  principal  part.     Man  disputed  the 


290  'Ilic  J/iininji  S/yccics. 

ground  with  lliem,  ami  fed  upon  tlK-ir  flesh.  The  struggle 
u'^ainst  the  conditiuiis  of  life,  and  the  wild  beasts  of  the 
ancient  world  was  terrible.  Tiie  race  of  these  primitive 
times  bears  in  a  high  degree  the  mark  of  this  savage  nature. 

During  the  period  in  which  the  Diean  inferior  alluvium 
{)noi/enn  nivruuj:  inferieurs)  were  formed,  the  great  animal 
species  still  inhabited  the  whole  of  Europe.  The  number  of 
their  representatives  seems,  however,  to  be  diminishing;  less 
formidable  species  begin  to  multiply,  and  the  horse,  in 
particular,  forms,  at  least  in  places,  large  herds,  which  olTered 
an  abundant  source  of  nourishment  to  man.  The  latter  was 
represented  especially  by  a  race  endowed  with  remarkable 
aptitudes.  At  first,  we  find  it  struggling  with  as  much 
vigour  as  the  preceding  one,  and  imder  almost  identical 
conditions;  but,  by  degrees,  perfecting  all  its  methods  of 
action,  and  adapting  them  to  the  new  conditions  introduced 
by  the  advance  of  time. 

A  great  modification  in  the  fauna  corresponds  to  the 
deposition  of  the  'mean  tipper  alluviuia  {moijens  niveaux 
euptrieum).  The  great  carnivora  and  the  mammoth  become 
more  and  more  rare,  till  at  length  they  disappear  altogether ; 
the  horse  no  longer  ])redominates ;  the  reindeer  has  taken  its 
place,  and  wanders  in  vast  herds  over  lands  which  are 
gradually  subsiding.  Man  has  profited  by  these  changes. 
New  races,  perfectly  distinct  from  the  preceiling  ones,  appear 
upon  our  soil.  That  of  the  preceding  age  develoj)s  ami 
attains  a  certain  tlegi-ee  of  civilization,  attested  by  true  works 
of  art. 

At  hnglh,  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  risi.s,  ami  Europe  is 
complete.  The  polar  ice  is  confined  within  its  present  limits, 
and  the  instdar  climate  gives  ])larc  to  a  continental  on(i, 
with  its  e.vtn.'mcs  of  heat  and  cold.  The  glaciers  of  our 
mountains  gradually  contract,  and  w  itiuhaw  to  higher  regions. 
The  animal  .sptrics,  no  longer  finding  in  the  samr  lati(u<Ie 
the  te«np<;ratijre  suitalilc  to  ihtin,  «;migrat(',  some  to  tlm 
sonih,  oth(*rH  to  the  north,  (»r  to  flw?  higher  niountains. 

Man  must   necessarily  have  felt  the  consrqiMMiO(>  of  these 


Fossil  I/iinian  Races.  291 

(.'hanges.  When  the  animals  which  formed  tlie  basis  of  his 
iDViiishmont  disappeared,  never  to  return,  a  part  at  least  of 
the  pi){)uhition  must  liave  followed,  and  emigrated  at  the 
same  time.  The  rising  societies  were  thus  shaken  to  their 
very  foundations,  ami  whilst  some  tribes  went  off  in  opposite 
ilirfctious,  those  which  remained  behind,  experienced  a 
decline  of  which  we  may  observe  the  traces  in  the  works 
which  they  have  bequeathed  to  us.  They  were  but  too 
easily  absorbed  by  superior  races,  who  brought  domestic 
animals  with  them,  and  substituted  the  pastoral  life  for  that 
of  the  hunter. 

III.  The  man  of  the  quaternary  period  has  left  here  and 
there  a  few  of  his  bones  by  the  side  of  those  animals  who 
were  his  contemporaries.  The  human  bones  in  question 
belong,  however,  almost  exclusively  to  Europe.  The  fo.ssil 
mau  of  other  parts  of  the  world  is  almost  unknown  to  us. 
Lund  is  said  to  have  discovered  it  in  certain  caves  in  Brazil. 
But  unfortunately  we  have  no  other  details  of  this  discovery 
than  a  short  note  and  two  drawings  of  small  dimensions, 
published  quite  recently  by  MM.  Lacerta  and  R.  Peixoto. 
Much  has  been  said  about  the  skull  discovered  by  Witney  in 
California.  Unfortunately,  the  description  of  this  spccinu-n 
h;is  not  appeared,  so  that  doubts  have,  on  several  occasions, 
been  expressed  as  to  the  existence  of  the  fossil  itself.  The 
recent  testimony  of  M.  Pinart  h:is  removed  them,  but  has,  at 
the  same  time,  created  the  most  serious  doubts  as  to  the 
anticpiity  of  this  specimen,  which  seems  to  have  been  found 
in  disturbed  grounds. 

The  restriction  of  the  discovery  of  human  fossils  to  Europe 
is  much  to  be  regretted.  We  have  no  authority  for  regarding 
Europe  as  the  starting  point  of  the  species,  nor  as  the  theatre 
of  the  formation  of  the  primitive  races.  We  should  rather 
seek  them  in  Asia.  It  was  uj^on  the  slopes  of  the  llimalay.i, 
at  the  b;use  of  the  great  central  mass,  that  Falconer  ho])ed  to 
find  tertiary  man.  iVssiduous  and  persevering  search  can 
alone  verify  the  prophecies  of  the  eminent  j>ala'ontologist. 
This  task  might  be  performed  by  some  of  the  learned  ofticera 


292  The  Jlianan  Species. 

of  the  English  army,  by  some  of  the  military  surgeons  sent 
out  by  the  groat  institutions  uf  LunJon.  Let  us  hope  that 
they  will  set  to  work  ;  that  they  ^^ill  utilize  for  this  end,  the 
leisure  they  enjoy  when  on  leave  in  some  sanatariurti  of  the 
Himalayas  or  Nilgheries.  There  is  every  reason  to  hope 
that  thoy  will  "enrich  science  with  important  ami  magnificent 
discoveries. 

IV.  A  few  general  facts,  the  interest  of  which  will  at  once 
be  evident,  may  already  be  disentangled  from  details  without 
leaving  European  soil.  We  will  first  establish  the  fact,  that 
in  quaternary  ages,  man  did  not  present  that  uniformity  of 
characters,  which  a  recent  origin  would  lead  us  to  expect. 
The  species  is  already  composed  of  several  races;  these  races 
appear  successively  or  simultaneously;  they  live  side  by  side; 
and  perhaps,  as  M.  Dupont  has  thought,  iho  uar  ofraccsrwuy 
be  traced  as  far  back  as  this  period. 

The  presence  of  these  clearly  characterised  human  groui)s 
in  the  quaternary  period,  is  enough  to  furnish  a  strong  pre- 
sumption in  favour  of  the  previous  existence  of  man.  The 
infiueuce  of  very  di.ssimilar  and  long-continued  action.s,  can 
alone  explain  the  differences  wliich  .separate  the  man  of  the 
Vezcre  in  France  from  that  of  the  Lcsse  in  ]klgium. 

V.  In  spite  of  some  opinions  which  were  brought  forward 
at  a  time  when  science  was  less  advanced,  and  when  terms 
of  comparison  were  wanting,  we  may  assert  that  no  fossil 
skull  belongs  to  the  African  or  Melanesian  Negro  type. 
The  true  Negro  did  not  exist  in  Europe  during  the  quater- 
nary ('{toch. 

We  <lo  not,  however,  conclude  from  this  lliat  th(>  type 
mu8t  have  come  into  existence  later,  and  dates  Uo\n  the 
present  geol(»;;ieal  perictd.  Fri'sh  research,  especially  in  Asia, 
ami  in  countries  itdiabited  by  l)laek  nations, ojin  aloiu-  decide 
thiM  |>oint  >\ith  certainty.  Nevcrthelc8.s,  up  to  the  present 
time,  the  residts  of  observation  have  been  hut  little  favour- 
able to  the  o])ini(Mi  of  some  nnthrojiologists,  who  have 
regarded  the  Is'egio  races  as  anterif^r  to  all  others. 

VI.  In  fo.s.Hil,  Its  well  as  in  modern  .skulls,  we  find  between 


Cranial  Cliaractcrs.  293 

races  jiml  irulividuals  oscilhitions  of  a  more  or  less  strikinfr 
character.  It  is,  however,  an  important  fact  that  tlicsc 
oscillations  arc  often  of  less  extent  in  known  fossil  races 
than  those  observed  in  existing  populations.  I  shall  only 
quote  one  example.  The  cephalic  index  of  the  most  ancient 
Kuropean  race,  taken  from  the  Neanderthal  man,  in  which  the 
ciiaracters  are  exaggerated,  is  72 ;  that  of  the  La  Trucherc 
skull,  which  belongs  to  the  latter  part  of  the  quaternary 
period,  is  84-32,  a  difference  of  1232.  Now,  at  the  present 
time,  the  mean  cephalic  index  of  the  Esquimaux  is  (JJ)30, 
that  of  South  Germans  80  20,  a  difference  of  IGOO.  Thus, 
between  the  two  extreme  races  separated  by  the  greater 
part  of  the  glacial  period,  the  oscillation  of  the  cephalic 
index  is  less  than  between  two  modern  contemporary  races. 
Moreover,  the  latter  range  between  wider  limits,  both  above 
and  below  the  mean,  than  the  two  fossil  races.  This  fact 
may  perhaps  be  explained  by  several  considerations,  which  I 
cannot  enter  into  here. 

I  should,  moreover,  observe  that  the  Lagoa  Santa  skull 
found  by  Lund,  and  which  has  just  been  described  by  M^L 
Lacorta  and  Peixoto,  effaces  in  a  great  niea.suro  the  dif- 
lirciices  which  I  have  just  pointed  out.  According  to  the 
Brazilian  savants,  its  cephalic  index  is  G'J'72,  descending 
almost  as  low  as  the  mean  index  of  the  Esquimaux. 

It  is  interesting  to  find  that  this  smaller  variability  of 
fossil  races  is  established  in  one  of  the  very  characters  which 
has  been  the  principal  cause  of  the  comparisons  of  some  of 
our  inferior  existing  races  with  apes.  Among  quaternary 
skulls  there  are  some  which  may  be  considered  as  presenting 
the  mean  degree  of  orthognathism  of  the  white  races  them- 
selves. The  Nagy-sap  skull,  the  No.  1  of  the  Trou  du  frontal, 
one  of  the  women  of  Grcnello,  etc.,  may  be  (pioted  as 
examples.  Others,  such  as  the  No.  2  of  the  Trou  du  fntntal, 
another  woman  of  GrcncUe,  the  old  man  of  Cro-Magnon, 
>ovcral  crania  from  Solutre,  are  more  or  less  prognathou.s. 
There  are  some  which  equal,  or  even  exceed,  in  this  respect 
tli(^  menu  of  our  Nt'jro  raris.      Ntvi  rtlulos   llicn-  .Tr<'  none 


294  The  I/itiuan  Spaics. 

w]iich  attain  a  degree  of  prognathism  equal  to  that  presented 
\\y  certain  examples  of  the  inferior  Australian  types,  or  of  the 
Kaffir  race. 

Another  order  of  facts,  Avhich,  without  possessing  the  im- 
portance of  the  preceding,  are  still  of  real  value,  present 
similar  results.  1  allude  to  the  stature  and  to  its  variations. 
M.  Hamy  has  determined  it  by  the  measurement  of  the 
femur  and  humerus.  It  appears  from  his  investigations 
that  the  maximum  presented  by  the  Mentune  skeleton  is 
185m.  (GOGft.),  and  the  minimum,  taken  from  one  of  the 
Furfooz  skeletons,  is  1*50  m.  (4'.02  ft.)  The  difference  between 
these  two  numbers,  03.5  m.  (114  ft.),  is  far  smaller  than  that 
which  exists  between  the  extremes  of  the  table  given  above. 

The  mean  of  the  numbers  found  by  M.  Hamy,  1"7()4  m. 
(5  889  ft.),  places  the  race  of  Cro-Magnon  very  near  to  the 
Patagonians  of  Musters  ;  but  the  Furfooz  race,  with  its  mean  of 
lo30  m.  (oOlI)  ft),  stands  well  above  the  Bosjesmans  and  Min- 
ci>pits.     It  occupies  almost  the  same  position  as  the  Lapps. 

O.icillations  have  taken  place  in  time  a.s  well  as  in  space. 
The  most  ancient  race  is  not  the  tallest.  The  skeletons  of 
Neanderthal  and  Brux  give  a  mean  of  only  170.)  m. 
(.5.5D.*J  ft.).  The  race  of  Cro-Magnon,  superior  in  height  to 
all  others,  is  chronologically  intermeiliate  between  them. 

The  preceding  generalizations  rest,  it  is  true,  upon  a 
number  of  observations  a.s  yet  too  limited  to  ])e  regarded  as 
conclusive.  But  they  at  least  confute  some  assertion.s,  and 
tend  to  dis.sipate  more  than  one  prejudice. 

VII.  Dolichocephalic  or  brachycephalic,  large  or  small,  or- 
thognathous  or  jjrognathous,  rpiaternary  man  is  always  man 
in  the  fidl  acceptance  of  the  word.  WluMiever  the  remain.s 
have  been  suflicient  to  enable  us  to  form  an  opinion,  we 
have  foJind  the  foot  and  the  hand  which  characterised  our 
Hpccic«,  the  v<;rtebral  cohnnn  has  displayed  the  double  c\\\- 
viiturr  to  whirh  Lawr»  nee  ascribes  such  great  imj)orlance, 
and  which  w.is  ni;i<h'  by  Strres  tlic  attribute  of  the  human 
king<lom,  as  Ik;  tinderstcxMl  it  The  more  we  study  the 
Kiibject,  tiic  more  arc  we  convinri  d  that  iv(  ly  bone  of  the 


General  Chai'acicrs.  295 

skeleton,  from  tlic  most  massive  to  the  smallest,  carries  with 
it,  in  its  form  and  proportions,  a  ccrtKicatc  of  origin  which  it 
is  impossible  to  mistak<\ 

By  reason  of  its  special  importance,  the  skull  deserves  con- 
sideration for  a  moment  from  this  point  of  view. 

We  will  first  state  that  all  the  bones  of  the  modern  human 
skull  are  to  be  found  in  the  fossil  skull  under  the  same 
forms,  and  presenting  the  same  relations.  Whether  we  con- 
sider them  separately  or  as  a  whole,  they  cannot  fail  to 
awaken  the  recollection  of  what  we  see  around  us  every  day. 
Even  the  immense  development  of  the  superciliary  ridges  in 
the  Neanderthal  man  cannot  disguise  the  entirely  human 
character  of  this  exceptional  skidi,  which  I  shall  presently 
discuss  more  at  length. 

In  all  fossil  races  we  find  the  essentially  human  character 
of  the  predominance  of  the  cranium  over  the  face.  With 
them,  as  with  us,  the  bony  framework  which  contains  the 
brain  becomes  longer,  narrower,  or  shorter,  at  the  same 
time  increasing  in  size  ;  it  rises  or  is  flattened,  but  always 
preserves  a  capacity  comparable  to  that  of  the  crania  of  the 
present  day.  In  the  Neanderthal  cranium,  which  has  been 
termed  the  most  brutal  known,  the  cranial  capacity,  cal- 
culated by  men  who,  we  may  be  sure,  did  not  wish  to 
exaggerate,  was  as  much  as  1220  cubic  centimetres  (74*42() 
cub.  in.).  Even  M.  Schaat^'hausen  considers  it  a.s  equal  to 
that  of  the  Malays,  and  superior  to  that  of  Hindoos  of 
small  stature.  In  the  Brazilian  skull  from  Lagoa  Santa 
it  is  1388  cubic  centimetres  (84GG  cub.  in.). 

We  can,  therefore,  with  perfect  safety  apply  to  the  fo.ssil 
man,  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  the  words  of  Huxley  : 
"  Neither  in  quaternary  ages  nor  at  the  present  time  does 
.any  intermediary  being  fill  the  gap  which  separates  man 
from  the  Troglodyte.  To  deny  the  existence  of  this  gap 
won  hi  be  as  reprehensible  jus  absurd." 

The  eminent  naturalist  who  wrote  this  sentence  did  not 
the  less  seize  every  occa.sion  which  presented  itself  to  point 
out,  in  the  difl'erent  human  races,  what  arc  called  sim'uni 


296  The  Iliiimiu  Species. 

traits  and  characters.  Is  there  then  in  Huxley  an  un- 
fortunate contradiction  ?  Evidently  not.  It  is  in  his  case, 
as  in  that  of  all  true  naturalists,  only  an  abuse  of  language, 
against  which  I  have  already  protested.  Belonging  to  the 
white  race,  which  they  naturally  regard  as  the  normal  type, 
confining  their  attention  to  the  very  substantial  anatomical 
similarities  which  exist  between  the  man  and  the  ape,  they 
compare  constantly  and  solely  the  white  on  the  one  hand, 
with  the  anthropoid  ape  on  the  other.  They  forget  that 
the  oscillations  of  morj^hulof/ical  characters,  the  inevitable 
result  of  the  formation  of  the  human  races,  must  necessarily 
sometimes  increase  and  sometimes  diminish,  in  however 
small  a  degree,  the  distance  which  separates  the  extreme 
terms ;  they  allow  themselves  to  employ  these  figurative 
expressions,  and  I  should  let  them  pass  without  comment 
were  tliey  not  sonietiim-s  undeMstood  literally,  either  volun- 
tarily or  involuntarily.  We  know  that  the  English 
naturalist  has  himself  bton  obliged  to  protest  strongly 
against  the  conclusions  whicli  have  been  drawn  from  his 
words  or  writings. 

Huxley  allows  that  the  oscillations  are  never  so  great  as  to 
cause  Confusion.  The  hunuDi  character,  therefore,  does  not 
alter  in  nature  ;  it  does  not  become  simian.  The  oscillations 
to  which  I  allude  may  sometimes  be  observed  in  the  same 
individual  and  even  in  the  same  bone.  In  the  old  man  of 
Cro-Magnon,  of  wliom  I  shall  presently  speak  at  some  length, 
the  femur  is  the  broa<lc8t  and  thickest  that  M.  IBroca  has 
ever  measured  in  man,  and  we  havo  found  others  of  still 
greater  size.  Now,  in  the  chimpanzee  this  same  bone  is 
broadi-T  atid  much  thinner.  Are  we  therefore  justified  in 
saying  that  the  femur  of  Lcs  Eyzies  is  partly  siuiian  and 
partly  inorc  than  huinan? 

Finally,  what  has  nally  been  proved,  is  the  conclusion  of 
HuxUy  which  I  have  just  (pioted.  IJelievers  in  pHhecoid 
man  must  be  content  to  seek  him  elsewhere  than  in  the 
oidy  fos.sil  races  with  which  wo  are  ac<iuaintc(l,  and  to  have 
recour.se   to   the  unknown.      There   may    be  some  who  Avill 


Dolkhoccphali  and  Brachyccphali.  297 

inunnur  at  this  necessity,  and  protest  in  the  name  of  itlt'do- 
xitplnj.  Let  tliom  say  what  tljey  will,  we  are  content  with 
havinjT  experience  and  observation  on  our  side. 

V'lII.  If  we  consider  the  general  formation  of  the  skiiU, 
all  fossil  races  may  be  referred  to  two  fundamental  types  ; 
the  one  distinctly  dolichocephalic,  and  the  other  advancing 
by  degrees  from  metacephaly  to  a  very  strongly  marked 
brachyccphaly. 

Animated  discussions  were  held  some  years  ago  to  decide 
which  of  these  two  types  preceded  the  other.  This  question 
again  is  connected  with  a  number  of  general  ideas  which 
may  be  designated  as  the  mongoloid  theory. 

At  the  conclusion  of  some  excavations  among  ancient 
tombs  and  a  few  dolmens,  Serres  announced  in  1854  that 
the  inhabitants  of  France  reckoned  Mongolians  amons  their 
ancestors.  Some  time  previous  to  this,  some  Scandinavian 
savants,  among  others  S.  Nilson,  Ptctzius,  Eschricht,  etc.,  had 
connected  with  the  Lapps,  that  is  to  say  with  the  Finnish 
race,  round-headed  skeletons  which  had  been  discovered  in 
the  neolithic  tombs  and  the  peat-bogs  of  Scania.  M.  Pruncr 
Bey,  combining  these  earlier  notions  with  the  data  recently 
acipiired  concerning  the  antiquity  of  man,  has  formulated  by 
degrees  a  complete  theory,  remarkable  for  its  simplicity  and 
for  the  light  which  it  throws  upon  the  whole  past  history  of 
the  jwpulations  of  France. 

In  the  opinion  of  this  eminent  anthropologist,  there  still 
exists  at  the  present  time  a  vast  human  formation  which  he 
ilesignates  vunujolo'id,  because  it  appears  to  him  to  be  con- 
nected in  certain  respceta  with  the  Mongol  type,  properly 
so  called,  whilst  at  the  .same  time  preserving  a  certain 
number  of  characters  in  which  it  resembles  the  white  races. 
This  great  race,  as  it  is  understood  by  M.  Pruner  Bey, 
occupies  the  greater  portion  of  the  north  of  the  oKl  continent, 
and  extends  even  into  America.  It  is,  moreover,  represented 
in  the  centre  and  south  of  Europe  by  several  more  or  le.ss 
isolated  groups,  such  as  the  Biuscpie.s.  Certain  historical 
populations,  such    as   the    Ligurians,   have    belonged   to  it. 


29S  The  Human  Species. 

There  is  every  indication  of  its  having  once  occupied  the 
wliole  of  p]uropo.  Now,  this  race  itself  is  descciKle(i  from 
the  primitive  quaternary  race,  as  it  is  known  to  us  through 
the  fossil  skulls  found  by  M.  Dupont  at  Furfooz  in  the  valley 
of  the  Lesse.  The  parentnge  and  fdiation  of  these  races 
appear  to  M.  Pruner  Bey  to  be  attested  by  tlie  general  form 
of  the  skull  and  by  its  proportions,  -which  in  all  these  races 
are  more  or  less  brachycephalic. 

The  opponents  of  these  general  views  brought  forward  the 
existence  of  the  crania  found  in  the  Neanderthal  in  Prussia, 
in  the  Engis  cave  in  Belgium,  in  the  tufa  beds  of  La  Deniso 
in  Auverirne,  in  the  loess  of  the  Rhino  at  E;'uisheim  in 
Alsace.  All  these  heads  arc  dolichocephalic.  They  were  said 
to  bo  more  ancient  than  those  of  Furfooz.  But  at  this  time 
there  were  doubts  of  a  diflereiit  nature  with  regard  to  nearly 
all  these  bones  which  might  have  appeared  legitimate,  and 
the  theory  of  M.  Pruner  Bey  gained  by  this  means  many 
strong  adherents.  When  writing  in  1875  my  liapport  sur 
lea  pror/rh  de  VAntltropoIofjie,  I  felt  obliged  to  ascribe 
anteriority  to  the  brachycephalic  type,  though  at  the  same 
time  making  formal  reservations,  especially  in  favour  of  the 
Eguisheim  skull.  The  di-scovery  at  Cro-Magnon,  in  Perigord, 
which  followed  soon  after,  showed  how  carefully  we  nuist 
guard  against  drawing  too  hasty  conclusions.  It  was  evident, 
that,  in  presence  of  these  great  dolichocephali,  incontcstabl}' 
anterior  to  the  men  of  the  Lesso,  the  mongoloid  theory  must 
iindergo  serious  modifications  which  I  did  not  hesitate  to 
.'irknowledgo. 

Sinc(;  then  science  has  been  enriched  by  new  discoveries, 
nnd  many  jMiints  have  been  cleared  up.  The  old  l)cds  of  the 
Seine,  studied  with  remarkable  intelligence  by  M.  15elgran<l, 
have  furnished  us  with  a  rrhttivc  chvonometcr,  tlie  indica- 
tion«  of  which  have  be( n  fidly  appreciated  by  M.  Hamy. 
Tlic  work  presented  by  him  at  the  Stockholm  Congress 
leavcH  no  room  for  doubt.  'J'ill  the  present  time  the  dolicho- 
ocphalic  type  only  ha-s  boon  foimil  in  the  Irnvrnf.  grareh  of 
the  jtlain   of  (Srenelle.      It    is   theref(»re  represenl<»l    by  the 


Dolicliocephali  and  BracJiyccphali.  299 

Cdustidlt  race.  It  reappears  in  tlio  form  of  the  Cro-M<ifjnon 
race,  in  the  alluvial  beds  at  the  level  of  and  below  the 
erratic  blocks  at  a  depth  of  from  3  to  4  m.  (10  to  13  ft.). 
Skulls  which  approach  more  or  less  to  the  brachycephalic 
type  are  only  found  above  this  level  at  a  depth  of  from 
2  oO  m.  to  1-40  m.  (8  ft.  2  in.  to  4  ft.  7  in.). 

The  superposition,  and  consequently  tiie  succession  of 
types,  is  here  evident.  Does  this  authorise  us  to  consider 
the  dolichocephalic  type  as  having  everywhere  preceded  the 
l»raehyceph!ilic  ?  We  oui^ht  perhaps  still  to  retain  some 
doubts  on  this  point.  Some  fragments,  belonging  probably 
to  the  latter,  have  been  discovered  at  Clichy,  very  little 
above  a  cranial  vault  of  the  Canstadt  race,  and  the  beautiful 
skull  from  Nagy-sap  in  Hungary  was  obtained  from  a  well 
characterized  loess,  the  age  of  which  does  not  however  appear 
to  have  been  determined. 

Perhaps,  when  fresh  facts  are  forthcoming  to  dispel  the 
latest  doubts,  we  shall  find  that  the  two  types  appeared  at 
almost  the  same  time  upon  the  lands  Avhich  were  one  day  to 
become  Europe  ;  but  at  present  everything  argues  in  favour 
(jf  the  anteriority  of  the  dolichocephali.  In  America  the  only 
known  fossil  skull  leads  to  the  same  conclusion. 

However  this  may  be,  the  mongoloid  theory  can  no 
longer  be  accepted  as  absolute.  The  man  of  Cro-Magnon 
and  that  of  Furfooz  cannot  be  placed  in  the  same  group,  and 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  same  race.  The  idea  of  M. 
Pruner  Bey  is,  nevertheless,  partly  true ;  and  the  honour  of 
having  connected  living  with  fo.-^sil  populations  cannot  bo 
denied  to  this  eminent  anthropologist.  Still,  what  he  has 
.said  of  one  race  must  be  applied  to  the  rest.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  Western  Europe  are  connected  with  the  quaternary 
period,  not  by  a  single  root,  but  by  six  at  least,  and  perhaps 
iii(»re. 

IX.  A  methodical  distribution  of  the  ditlereut  races  of  a 
species  is  never  an  easy  task.  The  ditliculty  is  very  strongly 
felt  in  the  study  of  living  Inmian  races  ;  it  is  still  greater  in 
dealin<'    with    fossil   races.      Evt  u    if    (lie    nial»  ri;ds    wtie  :ls 


300  The  Human  Species. 

abundant  as  thev  arc  rare,  wo  no  longer  have  the  perfect 
individual,  and  cannot  attempt  to  apply  tiie  natural  iru'thod ; 
we  are  forced  to  be  content  with  a  systematic  classification: 
This  is  wliat  M.  Hainy  and  I  have  been  obliged  to  do ;  and 
without  sharing  the  absolute  opinions  which  were  once  ad- 
vanced by  Ketzius,  we  took  the  general  form  of  the  skull  as 
the  starting  point  for  our  classification.  In  so  doing  we 
have,  morever,  only  imitated  palaeontologists  in  their  studies 
upon  fossil  animals. 

We  have  already  seen  that  considerations  drawn  from  this 
method  lead  to  a  division  of  fossil  man  into  two  groups,  the 
one  dolichocephalic,  and  the  other  brachyccphalic.  The  Lagoa 
Santa  skull,  which  must  from  all  appearance  be  the  type  of  a 
distinct  race,  is  evidently  connected  with  the  former.  The 
accounts  of  this  fossil  are,  however,  at  jirosent  so  incomplete, 
that  I  cannot  stop  to  consider  it  in  such  a  rapid  sketch  as 
this. 

In  these  two  fundamental  groups  differences  e.xist  side  by 
side  with  the  common  character.  In  the  former  these  differ- 
ences are  very  great  and  strongly  marked ;  they  are  generally 
less  80  in  the  latter.  Thus  we  have  clearly  distinguished  the 
two  dolichocephalic  types,  while  we  have  placed  in  the  same 
chapter,  and  as  it  were  in  a  kind  of  fatiiily,  jiart  at  least  of 
the  brachyccphalic  races. 

Sevcra.1  objections  may  be  raisetl  against  this  nomencla- 
ture, of  which  we  are  well  awari'.  We  understood  perfectly 
that  the  skull  of  La  'J'rucheie  is  as  distinct  from  those 
of  Furfooz  a.s  the  Neanderthal  .skull  is  from  that  of  Cro- 
Magnon.  On  the  one  hand,  however,  this  .skull  is  the  ex- 
treme liniit  of  a  graduated  series,  from  which  it  seemed  to 
UH  dinieult  to  detach  it ;  on  the  other,  this  fossil,  at  the  time 
when  we  were  writing,  was  perfectly  uni<|ue.  Even  at  the 
preHent  time  it  has  only  again  been  met  with  in  the  neolithic 
period.  Thus,  in  giving  it  a  place  in  our  table,  we  did  not 
wisii  to  Hopanitc  in  an  absolute  manner  an  individual  ca.so. 

A«  to  the  other  types  which  we  have  placed  in  the  same 
chapter,  they  form  a  true  natural  group,  each  at  the  same 


Dolichoccphali  and  Brachyccpliali.  301 

time  having  its  special  cliaracters,  which  by  careful  study  we 
are  able  to  recognise.  The  races  may,  therefore,  be  clearly 
detined.  The  tlrenelle  race,  especially,  will  always  be  very 
distinct  from  tiie  two  Furfooz  races.  Nevertheless,  we  here 
no  longer  meet  with  decisive  characters  which  strike  us  at 
the  tirst  ghmce,  and  the  ethnical  affinities  are  evidently 
closer.  It  will,  perhaps,  at  some  future  time  be  possible  to 
trace  these  three  branches  to  the  common  source  from  which 
they  have  all  sprung.  In  short,  we  must  represent  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge  without  interfering  with  the 
rights  of  the  future.  Our  nomenclature  satisfies,  we  believe, 
lliis  condition. 

We  admit  then  two  dolichoceijhalic  races,  those  of  Canstadt 
and  of  Cro-Magnon.  The  more  or  less  brachycephalic  races  are 
fuur  in  number.  Under  the  title  of  Furfooz  races  we  have 
included  two  races  discovered  in  that  famous  locality.  The 
Grenelle  race  and  that  of  La  Truchere  also  take  their  names 
from  that  of  the  localities  where  they  were  found. 

Let  us  rapidly  review  all  these  races. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 


THE   CAXSTADT  RACE. 


I.  The  name  of  this  race  is  that  of  tlie  village  near  which 
the  fir.st  human  fossil  was  foiunl.  In  1700,  Duke  Eborhani 
Ludwig  of  Wuitemberg  excavated  a  Roman  oppidum  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Stuttgard.  A  portion  of  the  cranial  vault 
of  a  man  wa.s  discovered  in  the  midst  of  a  number  of  animal 
bones.  Geology  and  palieontology  were,  however,  still  in 
their  infancy ;  and  the  nature  of  this  precious  fragment 
was  unknown  till  Jaeger,  in  1S:{."),  recognised  its  value  as  an 
argument  in  favour  of  the  coexistence  of  man  with  the  great 
extinct  mammals.  After  close  study,  thanks  to  the  kind- 
ness of  M.  Fraas,  M.  Ilamy  and  I  have  been  able,  without 
any  ditHculty,  to  connect  it  with  the  famous  Neanderthal 
hkull. 

II.  The  latter  was  discovered  in  1S.')7  in  a  small  cavern 
near  Diisseldorf.  The  .skeleton  was  perfect.  Unfortunately, 
the  workmen  who  discovered  it,  broke  and  dispersed  the 
bones,  of  which  part  only  were  saved  by  Dr.  Fuhlrott  When 
exhibited  the  same  year  at  the  Congrc.ss  of  Bonn,  they  became 
tiio  subject  of  long  continued  study  and  di.scussion.  M.  SchajifT- 
liausen,  although  himself  sometimes  going  beyond  the  truth, 
took  his  po.sition  from  the  fust  upon  the  right  ground.  Some 
nnatomihts  wished,  however,  to  consider  this  specimen  as  a 
special  Hjteries,  and  even  a  fresh  (jenus.  It  was  e.siK'cially 
considered  as  int«rmediate  between  man  and  apes,  and  here 
and  there  traces  may  still  be  found  of  these  oi)inions. 

'J'he  only  cause  of  tlu.'su  exaggerations  is  a  feature,  s( liking 
it  is  true,  winch  is  prest?nted  by  this  cranial  vault.  In  the 
Neanderthal   man  the   frontal  sinuses   have   an   exceptional 


The  Neanderthal  Skull.  303 

«lovelopment,  and  the  superciliary  riilgcs,  almost  lost  in  the 
niiiKlle  of  the  ghiLella,  form  a  most  strange  protuberance 
above  the  orbit.  This  conformation  has  not  failcil  to  be 
compared  to  the  hony  rid<j€S  which  the  anthropomorphous 
apos  possess  in  the  same  place.  Then,  starting  from  this  fact, 
it  has  been  thought  necessary  to  find  in  the  rest  of  the  cranium 
characters  in  harmony  with  this  simian  feature.  Stress  has 
been  laid  upon  its  slight  elevation,  the  lengthened  form,  the 
jirojoction  of  the  occipital  region,  etc. 

With  a  little  partiality,  and  by  only  comparing  it  with 
motlorn  skulls,  which  are  considered  as  normal,  a  separate 
species  of  being  has  been  made  of  the  Neanderthal  man.  By 
degrees,  however,  other  crania  equally  fossil  have  been  con- 
nected with  this  typo.  Indeed,  in  several  parts  of  Europe 
those  characters  which  were  too  hastily  declared  to  be  uniipie 
have  been  observed  in  dolmens  in  less  ancient  burial  places, 
in  historical  persons,  and  even  in  individuals  living  at  the 
present  time.  There  was,  then,  no  alternative  but  to  con- 
clude that  the  Neanderthal  man  belonged  to  a  formation 
which  was  unquestionably  human,  to  a  race,  certain  features 
t)f  which  were  merely  exaggerated  in  his  case. 

This  race  is  none  the  less  remarkable  and  perfectly  cha- 
racterized. In  all  individuals  of  the  male  sex  we  find  a 
greater  or  less  development  of  the  superciliary  prominences, 
which  were  so  striking  in  the  Neanderthal  man.  The  low 
and  narrow  forehead  appears  still  more  receding  in  conse- 
quence of  this  contrast.  The  cranial  vault  is  much  flattened. 
Tolerably  regular  in  its  two  anterior  thirds,  it  rises  towards 
the  iq)per  portion  of  the  occiput,  and  is  prolonged  backwards. 
The  entire  skull  is  relatively  narrow,  and  we  have  already 
seen  that  the  cephalic  index  descends  a.s  low  as  72.  These 
bones  are  al>o  remarkable  for  their  thickness,  which  in 
the  Eguisheim  cranium  reaches  11  millimetres  (0-43  in.). 
Some  of  the.se  features  are  modified  in  the  female  skull. 
The  superciliary  ridges  disappear  almost  entirely.  The 
occipital  protuberance,  and  csixjcially  the  prominence  of  its 
u])per  portion,  are  much  less  marked.  The  cephalic  index 
11 


304  The  Ihivian  Species. 

rises  one  or  twu  units,  Init  tiie  fhittcning  uf  the  vault  and  the 
other  charactir.s  are  j)ersi.stent. 

The  !Neanderth.al  cranium,  and  all  those  which  may  also 
be  connected  with  the  Canstadt  type,  are  incomplete  and 
without  the  face.  One  skull  alone,  the  age  of  which  un- 
fortunately is  not  determined  with  certainty,  enables  us  to  fill 
up  this  gap.  It  is  that  from  Forbes  Quarry  near  Gibraltar. 
In  this  case  the  •  cranium,  and  particularly  the  forehead, 
exactly  coincide  with  the  description  given  above  of  the 
Neanderthal  cranium,  luuiiense  and  almost  circular  orbits, 
the  index  of  which  rises  almost  to  fiSS*^,  well  agree  with  the 
vestiges  in  the  Neanderthal  cranium,  and  hide  by  their 
external  border  the  temporal  region.  Below,  the  malar 
bones  descend  almost  vertically  ;  the  nasal  bones  are  promi- 
nent;  the  nasal  orifices  very  broad.  The  superior  maxillary 
bone  is  sensibly  prognathous,  and  lastly  the  dental  arch  is  of 
a  hoi-se-shoe  shape  narrowing  backwards.  The  whole  is  rude 
and  massive.  A  face  recently  (lisc(»vere<l  by  M.  I'iette  in  the 
Courdan  grotto,  and  which  will  shortly  be  described  by 
M.  llamy,  confirms  the  connection  which  we  have  established 
between  the  Forbes  Quarry  skull  and  the  remains  of  the 
Canstadt  race.  Found  in  the  inferior  beds  of  the  cave, 
among  flints  of  the  Moustier  type,  this  specimen  reproduces 
with  some  nKnlifications  the  characters  which  we  have  just 
described.      The  inferior  maxillary  bone  recalls  that  of  Arcy. 

If  these  characters  are  united  to  those  presented  by  the 
celebrated  maxillary  bone  of  Nauletto,  we  must  aild  that  the 
chin  in  the  Canstadt  man  is  but  slightly  ])r(jniinent,  and  that 
the  lower  part  of  the  face  was  sciimtimes  more  ])eculiar,  in 
thiH  rfs|)ect,  than  the  greater  nundxr  of  the  skulls  of  Negroes 
from  (luinea.  'i'he  researches  of  M.  llaniy  have,  however, 
hhown  that  the  singidar  maxillary  bone  discovered  by 
M.  I)ii])ont,  wan  again  only  tlu;  exaggerated  realization  of  a 
type  wliich  i.s  met  with  elsewhere  under  consider.dile  modi- 
fications. 

In  shoit,  tiic  cranium  and  face  of  the  Canstadt  m.in  must, 
a;j  a  rule,  have  prcbcnlcd  a  strangely  savage  a.spect. 


The  Cansladt  Race.  305 

The  body  appears  to  have  harmonised  with  the  liead.  The 
few  hones  of  the  limbs,  preserved  more  or  less  intact,  indi- 
cate a  stature  of  only  Im.U.S  to  lm.72  ("Sft.  Gin.,  to  5ft.  8in.); 
yet  their  proportions  are  athletic.  They  are  very  thick 
relatively  to  their  length,  and  the  protuberances  and  de- 
pressions .serving  for  muscular  attachments  arc  remarkably 
developed.  Moreover,  the  tibia  discovered  in  a  quarry  at 
Clichy  by  M.  Bertrand,  presented  the  flattened  form  which 
iia.s  been  designated  i^latijmcraic,  and  the  ribs  of  the 
Neanderthal  skeleton  were  sensibly  more  rounded  than  is 
generally  the  case. 

III.  As  far  as  we  know  at  present,  the  Canstadt  race  is 
undoubtedly  the  most  ancient  European  one.  It  disputed 
the  ground  with  the  great  extinct  mammals,  with  the 
mammoth,  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  the  cave  bear,  and  the  cave 
hyana.  It  belongs,  therefore,  to  the  earliest  ages  of  the 
quaternary  epoch.  In  the  opinion  of  M.  Schaaft'hausen,  it 
may  be  traced  to  an  earlier  period  still,  and  is  identical  with 
tertiary  man  surviving  the  latest  geological  revolution. 

The  naturalist  who  has  made  us  so  well  acquainted  with 
the  Neanderthal  man,  only  invokes,  in  support  of  his  opinion, 
what  he  calls  the  ti/picdl  infcriorifij  of  this  man,  and  of 
those  who  arO  connected  with  him.  This  reason  would  to 
many  be  an  insufficient  motive  for  the  view  which  he  has 
taken.  But  I  have  observed  above,  that  we  are  justified  in 
assuming  that  man  fi)lloweil  into  Europe  the  great  mammals 
which  were  driven  by  the  cold  into  more  southern  countries. 
There  can,  then,  be  nothing  strange  in  the  idea  that  the 
race,  to  which  everything  points  as  having  been  the  most 
ancient  upon  our  soil,  should  also  have  been  the  one  to 
accomplish  the  migiation.  But  were  the  Saint-Prest,  the 
Monte  Apcrto,  and  especially  the  Tlu'nay  men  only  its 
jiioneeiN  ?  The  future  alone  can  answer  this  question  either 
in  the  affirmative  or  negative. 

However  this  may  be,  the  remains  of  human  industry 
indicate  a  well-marke*!  progress  since  the  earliest  ages. 
Tools  and  arms  became  more  numerous  an<l  perfect.     Deer's 


3o6  TJic  1  fuman  Species. 

antlers  and  bear's  jawbones  arc  worked  into  weapons  and 
tools  ;  in  addition  to  scraptMs  and  bon-rs,  the  form  of  which 
becomes  more  and  inure  marked,  we  tiiul  knives,  cldsels,  and 
hammers,  set  in  handles  :  hatcliets  of  much  greater  size, 
sometimes  comparatively  thin,  flat  upon  one  side  but 
retouched  upon  the  other,  sometimes  thick  and  rudely  cut 
on  both  sides,  with  or  without  a  handle,  belong  to  the 
mount ie rim  and  acheuleen  types  of  M.  do  Mortillet ;  they 
assume  definite  forms  by  which  we  arc  able  to  recognise 
several  modifications  characteristic  of  certain  localities  ;  the 
arrow  is  larger  and  the  lance  has  become  a  formidable 
weapon.  In  the  midst  of  the  lowest  (juaternary  alluvial 
deposits,  we  meet  with  small  heapaof  cose inopora  (jlohidaris, 
and  other  small  chalk  fossils,  all  pierced  either  naturally  or 
artiticiallv.  The  only  possilde  explanation  is  to  consider 
these  polypi  ami  shells  as  having  once  formed  necklaces  or 
bracelets,  the  thread  of  which  has  disajipeared.  Thus,  the 
taste  for  adornment,  so  largely  developed  in  modern  savages, 
was  displayed  as  early  as  this  period. 

If  we  compare  the  industries,  still  very  modest,  with  those 
of  the  present  day,  we  shall  be  able  to  form  for  ourselves  an 
approximate  idea  of  what  the  race  of  Canstadt  was  when  it 
ofcnpied  perhaps  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe.  With  M. 
Lartet  we  .see  in  the  obsidian  lances  of  New  Caledonia,  the 
Hint  heads  of  the  lower  alluvium  of  the  Sommo  ;  the  hatchet 
of  certain  Australians  reminds  us,  Jis  it  diil  Sir  Chaih-s  Lyell, 
of  the  Aljbeville  hatchet.  It  is  with  the  latter  and  with  the 
I'osjesmans,  that  I  should  be  tempted  to  connect  the  Nean- 
derthal man  and  his  fellows,  J^ike  them,  he  seems  to  have 
most  freipicntly  led  a  wandering  life.  But  few  of  his 
dwellings,  ur  places  of  meeting,  are  known  to  us,  such  jus 
the  Naul<  tie  cavern.  Nothing  seeujs  to  indicate  that  he 
had  places  of  burial  such  as  we  find  later.  Everything  tends 
to  show,  moreover,  that  he  lived  entirely  .'is  a  hunter,  and 
there  is  nc»thing  to  justify  us  in  supposing  that  he  was 
anpuiintcd  with  ngiiculture,  which  is  carried  to  sucli  a 
remarkable  pitch  by  certain  Melancsian  negroes. 


The  Canstadt  Race.  307 

IV.  Judging  from  the  geulogical  ili.stribution  of  the  rcmiiins 
wliith  have  been  met  with  up  to  the  present  time,  tlie  Can- 
stadt race  during  the  quaternary  period  principally  occupied 
the  basins  of  the  Seine  and  \\w.  Rhine,  and  extended  perhaps 
as  far  as  Stiingenius  in  the  Buhusliin  ;  certainly  as  far  as  the 
Olnio  in  central  Italy;  as  Brux  in  Bohemia;  as  the  Pyrenees 
in  France,  and  probably  as  far  as  (Jiltraltar. 

This  race  is  not  restricted  in  point  of  geological  time.  The 
attention  roused  by  the  strange  characters  of  the  Neanderthal 
cranium  w;u<  the  means  of  instituting  widespread  investiga- 
tions, which  have  rapidly  drawn  this  specimen  from  the 
isolation  in  which,  at  first,  it  seemed  to  be  placed.  B.  Davis, 
Bii.sk,  Turner,  King,  Carter  Blake,  Pruner  Bey,  Vogt,  Huxley 
and  Hamy  have  been  particularly  .successful  in  these  inves- 
tigations, and  have  brought  to  light  relations  which  are  now 
generally  adopted. 

The  result  obtained  from  all  these  labours  is  that  the  Can- 
stadt type,  sometimes  remarkably  pure,  and  sometimes  again 
more  or  less  modified  by  crossings,  is  found  in  the  dolmens 
and  in  the  cemeteries  of  the  Gallo-Roman  period,  in  those  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  modern  tombs  from  Scandinavia  to 
Spain,  from  Portugal  to  Italy,  and  from  Scotland  and  Ireland 
to  the  valley  of  the  Daiudje,  in  the  Crimea  at  Minsk,  and  as 
far  as  Orenbourg  in  Ru.ssia.  This  area  of  habitation  com- 
prises, we  see,  the  entire  space  of  time  which  has  elapsed 
from  the  quaternary  |)eriod  to  the  present  day,  and  the  whole 
of  Europe. 

The  remark  luus  w  ith  justice  been  made  l»y  M.  Hamy,  that 
there  probably  exist  in  India,  in  the  midst  of  populations 
driven  back  by  the  Aryan  inviusion,  representatives  of  the 
Neanderthal  type.  Nevertheles.s,  to  find  them  with  any 
degree  of  certainty,  we  must  go  as  far  as  Australia.  Our 
investigations  have  on  this  point  confirmed  those  of  Huxley. 
Among  the  races  t)f  this  groat  island  there  is  one,  distri- 
buted particularly  in  the  province  of  Victoria,  in  the  neigh- 
bourh^xxl  of  Port  Western,  which  icpnuluces  in  a  remarkable 
manner  the  characters  of  the  Canstadt  race. 


3o8  The  JIunian  Species, 

Filially,  the  Canstadt  race  has  had  representatives  in 
America  also.  One  of  the  drawings  published  by  MM. 
Lacerta  and  Peixoto  leaves  no  room  for  doubt  on  this  point. 
It  represents  almost  the  whole  of  the  upper  part  of  a  cranial 
vault  found  in  the  province  of  Ceara,  the  resemblance  of 
which  with  that  of  Eguisheim  is  very  striking.  Unfortu- 
nately, the  Brazilian  naturalists  say  nothing  about  the  situa- 
tion of  this  precious  fragment  at  the  moment  of  its  discovery, 
and  we  do  not  know  whether  the  cranium  in  question  is  a 
fossil  or  whether  it  belongs  to  the  present  epoch. 

V.  All  these  fact.s,  which  I  have  been  obliged  to  sum  up 
in  a  few  lines,  raise  an  important  problem,  and  lead  to  an 
interesting  conclusion. 

Are  we,  in  the  first  place,  justified  in  connecting  etlino- 
logically  the  crania  of  a  more  or  le.ss  Neanderthal  typo, 
discovered  in  the  Antipodes  as  well  as  in  Europe,  with  the 
races,  the  remains  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  the 
quaternary  alluvium  ?  Is  not  thf  reproduction  of  this  typo 
purely  accidental  ?  Do  not  the  most  ancient  crania  owe 
their  remarkable  characters  to  .some  pathological  condition, 
to  a  simple  deviation  from  the  normal  development,  and 
particularly  to  a  }»rciM:ilure  union  of  the  bones  of  the 
cranium  ? 

The.sc  several  opinions  liavc  been  maintaineil,  and  the 
latter  in  particnlur  has  had  adiiircnts.  It  rests  principally 
upon  the  condition  of  the  ossified  sutures  of  the  Neandiitlial 
cranium.  But  these  same  sutures  may  be  ob.served  in  the 
Canstadt  cranium.  M.  Sauvage  found  in  the  almost  infantine 
frontal  bone  of  La  l)enise  all  the  Ni-anderthal  characters, 
although  the  medio-frontal  suture  as  yet  only  existed  in 
part.  It  is  entirely  open  in  the  cranium  of  the  young  man, 
di.»*covered  in  a  I'oitou  tumulus,  de.sciibtcl  by  M.  I'runer 
Btty,  and  which  it  is  impo.ssibh;  not  to  connect  with  the 
preceding. 

Tims  we  cannot  .'ittiibnte  to  the  pi  iin.if  ore  ossification  of 
the  sutures,  the  form  of  the  crania  of  the  men  f)f  Canstadt. 
For  a  nuicl    stronger  reason,  the  cleailv  maiked  characters 


The  Canstadt  Race.  309 

of  tlic  forcliead  ami  face  which  rciiKiiii  cannot  support  this 
thuorv,  and  wc  must  allow  that  tlio  whole  constitutes  a  true 
ethiiiciil  typo. 

Since  wo  meet  with  this  type  disseminated  througli  time 
and  spact',  always  fimdamentally  the  same,  antl  sometimes 
reappeaiinj^  in  all  its  primitive  purity,  we  are  forced  to 
choose  between  the  two  following  interpretations  ;  wc  have 
here  either  an  ejuniple  of  tituv'c^m,  the  importance  of  which 
is  attested  by  its  generality  :  or  else  the  reproduction  <^f 
these  exceptional  forms,  in  the  midst  of  the  most  varied 
lK>puIiitlo)is  and  under  the  most  different  conditions  of  life, 
is  ilue  lo  mere  chance. 

The  laws  which  govern  the  formation  and  maintenance  of 
animal  and  vegetable  races,  and  from  which  man  cannot 
escape,  do  not  allow  the  admission  of  the  latter  conclusion. 
This  is  why  M.  Hamy  and  I  have  regarded  the  Canstadt 
race  as  one  of  the  elements  of  modern  populationa  In 
I'Airope  it  has  blended  with  succeeding  races,  but  asserts  its 
past  existence  by  the  marks  which  it  imi^resses,  even  at  the 
present  day,  upon  some  rare  individuals.  In  Australia, 
|)erhaps,  it  has  some  direct  descendants  in  the  tribes  of 
North  Western. 

VI.  The  epithets  hruttd  and  simian,  too  often  applied  to 
the  Neandrrthal  cranium,  anil  to  those  which  resemble  it, 
the  conjectures  made  with  regard  to  the  individual  to  whom 
they  belonged,  might  lead  us  to  think  that  a  certain  moral 
and  intellectual  inferiority  was  naturally  connected  with  this 
form  of  cranium.  It  can  ciusily  bo  shown  that  this  conclusion 
rests  upon  a  most  worthless  foundation. 

At  the  Paris  Congress,  M.  Vogt  quoted  the  examjtle  of  one 
of  his  friends,  Dr.  Emmayer,  whose  cranium  exactly  recalls 
that  of  Neanderthal,  and  who  is  nevertheless  a  highly  distin- 
uMiished  lunacy  doctor,  In  passing  through  the  Copenhagen 
Museum,  I  was  struck  by  the  Neanderthal  characters 
presented  by  one  of  the  crania  in  the  collection  ;  it  proved  to 
be  that  of  Kay  Lykkc,  a  Danish  gentleman,  who  played  some 
part  in  the  political  alVairs  of  the   17th  century.      M.Godron 


3IO  Tlic  llunian  Species. 

has  puLlislitHj  the  diawiiiu:  of  the  .skull  of  Saint  Mansuy, 
Bishop  of  Toul  in  the  4lh  century,  and  this  head  even 
exaggerates  some  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  Nean- 
derthal cranium.  The  fmihcad  is  still  more  receding,  tlie 
vaidt  more  depre.s.sed,  and  the  head  so  long  that  the  cephalic 
index  is  GO-il.  Lastly  the  skull  of  Bruce,  the  Scotch  liero, 
is  also  a  reproduction  of  the  Canstadt  type. 

In  presence  of  these  facl.s,  we  must  assuredly  acknow- 
led<'-e  that  even  the  individual  whose  remains  were  found  in 
the  Neanih-rtlial  cave  was  capaLle  of  possessing  all  the  moral 
and  intellectual  qualities  compatible  with  his  inferior  social 
condition. 


CIlArTKIl    XXVII. 

Tilt:   CRO-MAGNON    RACE. 

I.  In  the  year  IS.IS,  in  tlic  valley  of  the  Voz6rc,  near  to 
tiic  village  of  Les  Eyzics,  which  had  already  been  rendered 
famous  by  the  investigations  of  the  elder  M.  Lartet  and 
Christy,  the  workmen  brought  to  light  in  the  rock-shelter  of 
Cro-Magnon  the  bones  of  three  men,  a  woman  and  a  child, 
which  liave  been  preserved  to  science  by  MM.  Berton- 
Meyron  and  Dclmarcs.  M.  Louis  Lartet,  to  whom  the  study 
of  the  deposit  had  been  entrusted,  determined  their  geologi- 
cal age ;  MM.  Broca  and  Pruner  Bey  described  them  with 
all  the  precision  which  we  should  expect  from  their  know- 
ledge of  the  subject,  and  the  discussions  which  arose  between 
these  two  eminent  antliropologists,  brought  the  essential 
points  still  more  strongly  forward.  The  Cro-Magnon  bones 
thus  became  classic  almost  within  a  day  of  their  discovery  ; 
and  M.  Hamy  and  I  could  not  do  better  than  group  around 
them  the  human  remains  which  resemble  them.  This  has 
been  our  reason  for  choosing  the  name  which  we  have  given 
to  our  second  dolichocephalic  race. 

Like  the  preceding  one,  this  also  has  its  typical  imlividnal 
who  exaggerates  in  certain  respects  the  characters  of  the 
race,  and  thus  presents  an  extreme  term  of  comparison. 
The  contrast  is  only  the  more  striking.  The  only  character 
common  to  both  the  Neanderthal  man  and  the  old  man  of 
Cro-Magnon  lies  in  the  proportions  of  the  cranium.  The 
cephalic  index,  here  73  7(5,  differs  but  very  slightly,  jus  we 
see  at  once  from  what  we  have  already  stated.  It  tle- 
scends,  moreover,  as  low  as  70  O.i  in  a  cranium  of  the  same 
race   found   at   8olutre ;    it  is   70-52    in    the    famous    Engis 


3 1  2  The  Iliinian  Species. 

cranium.  It  was  this  elongation  from  the  front  backwards 
which  led  Schnicrliiig  to  connect  the  fossil  man  which  he 
iiad  just  discovered  with  the  Ethiojiian  ratlier  than  with  the 
European.  Tiiis,  at  least,  partly  accounts  for  the  theory 
Avhich  makes  the  Negro  the  starting  point  of  our  race. 
M.  Haniy,  in  connecting  the  Engis  cranium  with  the  Cro- 
Magnon  type,  has  added  one  more  fact  to  those  which  are  at 
variance  with  this  doctrine. 

In  every  other  respect  the  Cro-Magnon  head  and  that  of 
Canstadt  are  most  dissimilar.  Instead  of  a  low  and  retreat- 
ng  forehead  above  superciliary  ridges  which  remind  us  of 
the  ape,  instead  of  a  flatteneil  vaiilt  like  that  of  the  Nean- 
derthal skull  and  its  companions,  we  here  find  a  large  fore- 
head rising  above  frontal  sinuses  but  slightly  marked,  and  a 
vault  presenting  the  finest  proportions.  The  frontal  bone  is 
remarkably  developed  from  before  backward.  The  fronto- 
occipital  curve  is  continued  with  a  striking  regularity  till 
Avithin  a  short  distance  above  the  lambda.  It  is  there  bent 
so  as  to  form  a  surface  which  is  prolonged  upon  the  cerebral 
]»art  of  the  occipital  bone.  The  cerebral  region  of  the  same 
bone  is  carried  abruptly  downward,  and  presents  numerous 
strong  impressions  of  muscular  insertions. 

This  skull,  so  remarkable  for  its  fine  jtroportion,  is  also 
remarkable  for  its  capacity.  According  to  M.  Broca,  who 
could  only  work  under  precautions  calculati-d  to  diminish 
the  amount,  it  is  equal  to  at  least  l.>!)0  cubic  centimetres 
(IKj'D!)  cubic  inches).  I  have  already  remarked  that  this 
ntimbcr  is  far  higher  than  the  mean  taken  from  modern 
J'ari.-ians ;  it  is  equally  so  in  oompaiisou  with  the  oihcr 
Eurojiean  races. 

Thus,  in  the  savage  of  (piaternary  ages,  who  liad  to  light 
against  the  mammoth  with  stone  weaj)ons  for  arm.s,  we  find 
all  tho.sc  craniological  characters  generally  considered  as  the 
sign  of  great  int<llrrt«ial  development. 

The  features  of  the  fare  are  not  less  striking  than  those  of 
the  skull,  in  the  heads  which  M.  rmner  ^dn^y  calls  luir- 
vionic,  a  face  elongated  from  abi»ve  downward  corresponds  to 


The  Cro-I\Iagnon  Race.  313 

a  skull  elongated  from  beliiiul  forward.  When  there  is  a 
disagreement  between  these  proportions  the  head  is  diju- 
kaniionic.  This  latter  character  is  very  strongly  marked  in 
the  old  man  of  Cro-Magnon.  The  bizygomatic  transverse 
diameter  accpiires  an  extent  rare  even  in  harmonic  brachy- 
cephali.     In  Ids  case  the  facial  index  descends  as  low  as  G3. 

This  exaggeration  in  breadth  is  present  also  in  all  the 
upiHjr  and  medial  parts  of  the  face.  The  orbits,  almost  recti- 
linear at  their  extremities,  are  remarkable  for  their  sli<dit 
elevation,  being  on  the  other  hand  very  long.  The  orbital 
index  descends  lower  than  M.  I3roca  hi\s  ever  known  it  to  be: 
it  is  only  (»1. 

But  this  tendency  to  breadth  does  not  extend  to  the 
medial  regions  or  to  the  inferior  portion  of  the  face.  The 
nose,  the  bones  of  which  are  boldly  projected  forward  and 
constitute  a  strongly  marked  protuberance,  is  narrow  ;  from 
its  index,  4.jO.0,  it  places  the  old  man  of  Cro-Magnon  amongst 
the  lepthurhini  of  M.  Broca.  The  superior  maxillary  bone  is 
equally  narrowed  relatively  to  the  face  which  it  terminates, 
and  the  alveolar  arch  is  projected  outward  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  produce  a  very  decided  prognathism.  The  inferior 
maxillary  bone  is  especially  remarkable  for  the  breadth  of  its 
ascending  branches  which,  according  to  the  investigation  of 
M.  Broca,  surpass  in  this  respect  all  other  known  human 
jaw-bones.  The  breadth  in  (piestion  is  41)  m.m.  (lOo  inch). 
Far  from  being  obliterated  and  retreating,  as  in  the  Canstadt 
race,  the  slightly  triangular  chin  projects  forwards. 

The  cej)halic  characters  of  the  ol«l  man  of  Cro-Magnon  arc 
to  be  found  more  or  less  strongly  marked  iu  all  the  men  of 
the  same  race.  They  are  generally  modified  in  the  women. 
Thus,  even  in  that  sj)ecimen,  the  head  of  which,  unfortunately 
incomplete,  was  discovered  not  far  from  that  of  the  old  man, 
wc  see  the  beautiful  lines  of  the  skull  preserved,  and  the 
forehead  even  rising  a  little  higher  still.  But  the  posterior 
Burface  is  less  pronounced,  the  dysharmouy  is  less  strong 
between  the  skull  and  the  face.  The  latter  is  relatively 
longer,  the  orbits  arc  higher,  the  nose   is  broader,  and  the 


314  ^/^^'    I/lOli^'i    S/>i'cic-S. 

.prognatliisiu  is  inoJiticd.  We  cannot,  however,  deny  the 
ethnical  rehitiun  of  the  two  heads  which  were  fuund  together, 
and  which  thus  constitute  definite  terms  of  comparison  for 
the  two  sexes. 

The  Cro-Magnon  race  was  tall.  The  mean  height  deduced 
from  the  measurements  taken  by  M.  Hamy  upon  a  skeleton 
and  the  isolated  bones  of  five  men  is  ITS  m.  (5  feet  10  inches. 
With  the  old  man  of  Cro-Magnon  it  was  about  182  m.  (5 
feet  110  inches),  and  with  the  Mentone  man,  whose  skeleton 
was  found  by  M.  Riviere  entire  and  hi  situ,  it  was  as  much 
iis  1S.5  m.  (0  feet  ()-8  inches).  The  Cro-Magnon  woman 
measured  IGG  m.  (5  feet  5  3  inches).  These  bones  and  all 
those  which  have  been  connected  with  them,  moreover,  give 
indications  of  a  remarkably  strong  race.  They  are  thick 
and  solid.  In  all  cases  the  nuiscvdar  impressions  are  very 
strongly  marked.  In  the  old  man  of  Cro-^NIagnon  the  fenuirs 
are  also  the  broadest  and  thickest  that  M.  Broca  has  ever 
measured,  as  we  have  already  ninarked.  The  linea  aspera 
is  also  of  an  unusual  breadth  and  thi<  knr^s  aiid  \\<i\n^  a  si)rt 
of  prutninent  column  or  buttress. 

Finallv,  in  the  Cro-Magnon  men,  a  line  opi  n  funluad,  a 
large,  narrow,  and  acjuiline  nose,  must  have  compi'Usated 
for  any  strangeness  which  the  face  may  have  ac(]uir(-(l  fp-m 
the  probable  smallness  of  the  eyes,  from  very  strong  mas- 
setcr.H,  and  from  a  slightly  lozenge- shaped  contour.  With 
tlicse  features,  the  type  of  which  is  in  no  way  disagreeable, 
ami  allows  of  real  beauty,  this  magniticmt  race  combined 
a  high  stature,  powerful  mu.scles,  and  an  athletic  constitu- 
tion. It  seems  to  liavc  been  fitted  in  cviiy  way  for 
.struggling  against  the  tlilTiculties  and  perils  of  savage  life. 

Jl.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  Cro-Magnon  race  was 
diHCOVcred  inun(-<l lately  above  that  of  Canstadt  in  thr  a!hi- 
vial  d((»osits  of  (Innclle.  It  is  therefore  very  old.  and  was 
conteni|)orary  with  the  great  mammals,  now  either  extinct 
or  emigrated.  M(jro  Hociable,  doubtless,  and  more  nettled 
than  the  preeeding  race,  it  inhabited  caverns  where  it  left 
numerous  specimens   of  its  handiwork  ;   it   buried  its  dead 


The   Ti'oglodylcs  of  iJic   V&d-re.  3 1 5 

under  the  shelters  where  they  arc  now  found.  A  great 
nuinher  of  enjinent  investigators  have  explored  these  sclent ijic 
(juai'ries.  I  cannot  enumerate  them  all  here,  but  there  is 
one  name,  the  omission  of  which  would  be  unpardonable, 
that,  namely,  of  Edouard  Lartct.  It  is  well  known  with  what 
persevering  intelligence,  sometimes  alone,  sometimes  accom- 
panied by  his  friend  Christy,  this  man,  as  modest  as  he  is 
learned,  luis  explored  these  caves,  what  treasures  he  has 
obtained  from  them,  and  the  prude«ce  and  sagacity  wliich 
he  showed  in  the  interpretation  of  liis  splendid  discoveries, 
and  only  justice  was  done  to  him  in  awarding  him  the  title 
of  Jouiulcr  of  human  jxdccontolor/i/. 

Thanks  to  him,  and  to  those  who  have  followed  in  his 
>teps,  we  possess  the  essential  elements  of  a  history  of  the 
C'ro-]SIagnon  race.  Almost  without  leaving  this  valley  of  the 
Vezere,  the  name  of  which  stands  so  high  in  anthropology, 
we  can,  as  M.  Broca  has  done,  follow  it  step  by  step.  In 
fact,  from  the  village  of  Les  Eyzies  to  the  rock-shelter  of 
Moustier,  within  a  distance  of  from  seven  to  eight  miles  we 
meet  with  no  less  than  eight  human  settlements,  all  of  which 
have  become  more  or  less  celebrated  from  the  different 
records  which  they  have  furnished.  They  are  the  Mon.sticr 
ravem,  the  Mouaticv  shelter,  the  shelter  of  La  Madeleine, 
the  Cro-M(if/)ion  shelter  and  burial-place,  the  Ldnrfpric-Htuiie 
.'helter,  the  Lnu(jeric-B((^sse  shelter,  the  Cioiye  (T Eiifrr  caxcru, 
and  the  Les  Eyzies  cavern. 

The  most  ancient,  that  of  Moustier,  is  connected  by  its 
fauna  with  the  lower  alluvium  (bas  niveaux)  of  (Jrenelle,  and 
dates  at  least  from  the  close  of  the  age  of  the  bear  ;  that  of 
\a  Madeleine  cannot  be  placed  much  before  the  present 
t'poch.  Between  these  two  extremes  are  ranged  the  other 
six,  and  altogether  they  mark  out,  so  to  speak,  the  two  last 
periods  of  the  quat«'rnary  ages.  Yet  to  obtain  a  clear  idea  of 
the  social  and  intidlectual  development  of  the  race,  to  learn 
liow  fer  it  complied  with  the  modifications  of  the  climate, 
and  what  progress  or  what  decadence  these  modifications 
imposed    upon    it,    wc    must    consult    the    evidences    which 


3i6  llic  Iluniaii  Species 

it  has  left  in  many  other  locahties,  and  esiKcially  in  the 
caves  and  shelters  of  Bruniquel,  in  the  burial-places  of 
Solutre,  in  the  caves  of.Gourdan,  Duruty,  ami  of  L'Homme- 
Mort,  etc. 

The  men  wlio  fn-iiuentcd  the  Muu.slicr  cavern  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  much  superior  to  the  Canstadt  race,  witii  wluch 
they  were  perhaps  associated,  and  -whose  industries  they 
closely  imitated.  Their  conditions  of  existence  were  almost 
identical  with  those  of  the  preceding  age.  They  lived 
ainon"-  the  irrcat  mammals  which  served  them  for  food. 
The  horse  and  the  aunjchs  were  the  general  objects  of  their 
.sport.  But  they  fed  upon  the  mammoth,  the  bear,  and  even 
the  lion  and  the  cave  liyaMia.  To  meet  .such  enemies  as 
the.se  they  employed  a  species  of  spear-head  and  small  huice, 
smooth  upon  one  side,  cut  upon  the  other,  and  sharp  at  the 
edges,  constituting  umloubtedly  a  formidable  weapon.  This 
special  f«Mni  characterises  the  Mou.slirr  (t//u'  of  M.  ile  Mor- 
tillet.  The  hunters  (»f  this  epoch  cut  their  arrows  upon  the 
.«amc  model,  but  rarely  made  use  of  them  ;  they  seem  to 
have  despised  birds  and  small  game  ;  the  other  iuiplements 
remained  almost  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  age. 

At  Cro-Magnon,  the  progress  is  evident.  Our  fine  old 
man  and  his  companions  had  arms  and  implements  of  flint, 
which  were  more  numerous,  more  varied  and  less  massive. 
To  judge  from  the  remains  of  their  kitchen,  they  must  have 
ni;ide  frcipient  use  of  the  bow,  to  obtain  birds  and  .suiall 
iii:immal.s,  while  they  still  attacked  large  aniiuais,  and 
especially  the  horse,  with  the  lance,  spcar-lieail,  :ni<l  i»erh;ips 
the  dagger. 

At  Latigerie-llaute,  on  the  Vt^zerc,  at  Solutre,  in  the 
Mj'iconnais,  and  other  contemporary  settlements,  the  cutting 
of  the  flints  reached  a  degree  of  perfection  which  was  truly 
marvellous.  Sometimes  undoubtedly  old  types  reappeared 
side  by  side  with  forms  niodified  by  intelligent  e.xjjeriencc, 
and  by  [»crfected  workiuan.ship.  Still  the  predominance  of 
the  latter  is  so  nuirkcd,  that  it  tlistinctly  characteri.ses  this 
epoch.     The  points  of  the  lances  and  javelins  are  tapered  off 


Till'  Cro-Magnon  Race — ludushy.  317 

more  or  less  in  the  shape  of  a  wahiut,  hiurtl,  or  plantaii)  kaf. 
They  arc  very  pointed,  and  become  perfectly  symmetrical. 
The  arrowheads  are  the  object  of  most  particular  care.  M.  de 
I'erry  has  very  well  shown  tiiat  the  i,n'neral  form,  the  weight, 
the  angle,  etc.,  were  calculated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be 
adapted  to  the  different  distances  of  flight,  to  the  necessities  of 
the  chase.  All  these  tools,  finely  cut  upon  both  sides,  ])rcsent, 
moreover,  a  much  more  remarkable  finish  than  what  we  meet 
with  in  any  of  the  otlier  implements.  They  were  worthy 
of  being  taken  for  one  of  the  terms  of  compari.son  admitted 
by  M.  de  Mortillet,  and  constitute  his  Soladr  ifjpr. 

Essentially  hunters,  and  certainly  warriors,  the  men  of 
this  period  bestowed  tlu-ir  chief  attention  upon  their  arms. 
They  probably  felt  a  certain  pride  in  possessing  the  finest  or 
the  best  cut  weapons  ;  but  the  relative  indiflferencc  which 
they  betrayed  in  the  matter  of  other  objects,  shows  us  that 
their  chief  aim  in  the  finish  of  their  work  was  to  make  their 
weapons  more  terrible  by  increasing  their  power  of  penetra- 
tion. Several  fragments  of  bone,  discovered  in  places  remote 
from  each  other,  and  belonging  to  several  periods,  prove  that 
these  weapons  of  flint,  handled  by  .strong  hand.s,  left  nothing 
to  be  desired  in  this  respect.  I  shall  only  mention  the  verte- 
bra of  a  reindeer,  whieh  had  been  pierced  through  by  a  lance 
or  a  javelin,  and  a  human  tibia,  through  the  head  of  which  an 
arrow  lias  passed  near  to  the  kneepan.  In  both  ca.ses  tho 
broken  flint  has  remained,  testifying  to  the  good  quality  of 
the  weapon  and  to  the  strength  with  which  it  was  used. 

At  the  time  of  the  deposition  of  the  upper  river  gravely 
and  when  the  i^redominance  of  the  reindeer  was  most  marked, 
the  industry  of  the  men  of  Cro-Magnon  underwent  a  sudden 
change.  Till  then  flint,  and,  in  its  ab.sence,  other  hard 
stones,  had  furni.shed  both  the  implement  and  the  in.strument 
formed  by  the  aid  of  the  former.  Doubtless  from  the 
earliest  times,  bones  and  the  antlers  of  the  stag  or  reindeer, 
had  been  \ised  from  time  to  time  ;  but  they  only  played  au 
almost  insignificant  part  in  the  mamifacture  of  tools  or 
weapons.     During  the  epoch  of  which  we  are  speaking,  they 


3i8  The  Iluinan  Species. 

acquired  a  giowini:^  importance,  and  soon  furnished  almost 
the  only  material  for  weapons.  Flint  was  now  only  used 
to  make  the  implements,  and  these,  on  the  other  hand,  became 
more  numerous,  and  fitted  for  the  most  varied  uses.  It  was 
with  Hints  that  the  troglodytes  of  Les  Eyzies,  of  Laugerie- 
Basse,  of  La  Madeleine,  and  a  great  number  of  other  settle- 
ments, sawed  and  carved  their  reindeer  antlers  to  make 
strong  harpoons,  which  were  barbed  on  one  side  only.  It 
was  with  tlint  that  they  pointed  needles  not  much  longer 
than  our  own,  and  pierced  the  eye.  In  some  specimens  the 
latter  is  so  small  that  the  piercing  of  it  remained  a  problem, 
till  Lartet  reproduced  it  wiih  his  own  hand,  using  one  of  the 
implements  which  ho  had  discovered.  But  the  most  charac- 
teristic object  of  the  Magdalen  tan  type  is  the  arrow-head, 
regularly  barbed  on  both  sides,  the  teeth  of  which  contain 
little  channels,  probably  intended  as  the  receptacle  of  some 
poi-sonous  substance. 

The  succession  of  industries  which  I  have  just  pointed  out 
is,  moreover,  by  no  means  invariable.  As  the  investigations 
and  discoveries  increase  in  number,  we  are  more  and  more 
impressed  by  the  fact  that  the  several  colonies  of  the  race 
under  consideration,  yielding  to  local  necessities,  or  carried 
away  by  the  accidents  of  their  development,  do  not  present 
an  unintelligible  uniformity.  The  last  excavations  carried 
out  at  Holulre  by  MM.  Arcelin  and  the  Abbe  Ducrost, 
.show  arms  and  instruments  of  tht>  Magdalenian  type  which 
are  anterior  to  tho.se  of  the  Solutre  type.  In  this  epoch, 
jis  at  the  present  time,  there  existed  i\  certain  diver- 
fiity  which  e-xplains  the  coincitlence,  in  point  of  time,  of 
<lirt«-ivnt  industrial  typos  among  this  jxipulatioii  of  similar 
origin. 

111.  The  lighter,  mon;  trusty,  and  more  Naricd  weapons, 
announce  a  change  in  tin;  life  of  our  troglodytes.  They 
continue,  it  is  true,  to  hunt  large  ganu^  when  it  comes  in 
their  way;  a  few  ran;  mannnoths,  surviving  the  climatic 
nnxlifications  which  were  going  on,  still  h'll  under  their 
hnn<l;  the  horse  also  oft»ii  contributed  to  their  repast.     The 


The  Cro-Maonon  Race — Life.  319 

rciiKU'tT,  lunvcvor,  lar<,'fly  pro(loiniii;itcil  in  tlic  d^hris  of  tlicir 
kitchen.  Mixed  with  them  are  dnrnd  the  remains  of  small 
matiunals,  such  as  the  hare  atul  the  squirrel.  Birds  also 
benan  to  bo  used  for  food  to  a  considerable  extent.  From 
the  bones  discovered  in  the  single  grotto  of  Gonrdan,  so 
admirably  explored  by  M.  Pietto,  M.  Alph.  Edwards  has  been 
able  to  distinguish  twenty  distinct  species.  Lastly,  the  men 
of  the  Magdal.nian  age  fed  also  upon  fish  ;  but  fishing  again 
was  to  them  a  kind  of  hunting.  They  evidently  did  not  use 
the  hook,  and  only  harpooned  the  larger  species,  the  salmon 
in  Perigord,  and  the  pike  in  the  ryrcnees, 

Tlie  conveyance  of  the  large  animals  which  fell  under  their 
hand  to  their  usual  dwelling  place,  would  have  been  too 
much  even  for  such  .stalwart  hunters.  They  cut  them  up 
upon  the  spot,  leaving  only  the  skeleton  of  the  trunk.  We 
rarely  find  in  the  caves  more  than  the  bones  of  the  head  and 
limbs,  which,  again,  are  almost  always  broken.  Like  all 
savages,  the  troglodytes  of  the  Vezcre  held  the  brain  an<l 
marrow  in  high  estimation.  The  long  bones  which  enclosed 
the  latter  have  evidently  been  split  in  a  methodical  manner, 
with  a  view  to  preserving  the  contents.  M>[.  Lartet  and 
Christy  even  think  that  a  special  implement  was  employed 
in  eating  these  delicate  morsels.  A  kind  of  spatula  made 
from  the  antler  of  a  reindeer,  with  a  conical,  richly  carved 
handle,  hollowed  and  rounded  at  the  extremity,  has  been 
regarded  by  them  as  a  viarww  sjwon. 

The  large  amount  of  ashes  and  burnt  wood  found  in  the 
Vezere  deposits,  leaves  no  room  for  doubt  that  fire  wa.s  used 
in  the  cooking  of  food.  The  manner  in  which  it  was  used 
is,  howevi'r,  rather  a  difficulty.  No  trace  of  pottery  has  been 
found  among  these  hunters,  and  there  is  nothing  to  show 
that  they  were  acquainted  with  the  oven  of  the  Polynesian.^. 
They  must,  therefore,  have  gone  to  work  like  the  Siberians, 
who,  at  the  close  of  the  hi-st  century,  had  only  vessels  of 
li-atluT  or  (»f  Wood,  and  nevertheless  were  able  to  boil 
the  water  which  they  contained  by  throwing  in  highly 
heated  fiints. 


o20  The  Iluiuaii  Species. 

We  have  no  rca.son  for  tliinkiiifj  tli;it  tlie  Cio-M;ii;non  man 
was  a  cannibal.  We  find  among  the  debris  of  liis  kitchen, 
none  of  those  lung  bones,  broken  so  as  to  extract  the  marrow, 
which  could  not  but  have  been  mixed  with  those  of  the  larffc 
mammals,  had  human  flesh  formed  even  accidentally  part 
of  their  repast.  Nevertheless  M.  Piette  has  found  at 
Gourdan  several  icmaiiis  of  human  skulls,  bearing  the  mark 
of  flint  knives,  and  the  trace  of  blows  which  seem  to  have 
l>roken  them.  Axes  and  atlases  in  great  (juantity,  jaw-bones 
broken  or  whole,  accompany  these  fragments  of  the  cranial 
vault.  These  facts  may  justify  the  opinion  of  M.  Piette. 
The  Gourdan  warriors  after  having  killed  an  enemy, 
doubtless  brought  his  head  home,  scalped  it,  and  perhaps 
mixed  the  brain  in  some  kind  of  pottage,  as  some  of  the 
tribes  of  the  PhilipjtiMe  islands  do  at  the  pre.sent  day.  But 
they  did  not  eat  the  flesh  of  the  van(iuished,  Avho.se  decapi- 
tated corp.ses  were  probably  left  on  the  field  of  battle. 

IV.  Needles,  like  those  which  I  have  mentioned  above, 
would  not  have  been  made  had  there  not  been  somethin<' 
t<>  sew.  This  fact  alone  suggests  the  idea  of  clothes.  The 
cha.se  furnished  the  raw  niaterial.  The  art  of  preparing 
skins  must  have  been  carrieil  by  these  tribes  as  far  as  it  h;is 
been  by  the  lled-Skin.s,  to  judge  from  the  nunibcr  of  scrapers 
and  smoothers  which  have  l»een  fo\ind  in  tlair  station.s. 
The  marks  left  by  flint  knives  at  the  points  where  long 
tendons  taken  from  the  lind>s  of  the  reindeer  were  inserted, 
show  how  the  thread  was  j)rociired.  The  clothes,  when 
sewn,  nuist  have  been  ornamented  in  various  ways,  as  they 
arc  by  savages  of  the  present  day.  Upon  the  skeleton  dis- 
covered at  Laugerie-lia.sse  by  M.  Mas.senat,  twenty  pierced 
shells  were  found  placed  in  pairs  upon  dilferent  parts  of  the 
liody,  'J'his  WU.S  not  an  instance  of  either  necklace  or  bracelet, 
but  of  ortianjents  arranged  in  an  almost  symmetrical  manner 
np<»n  a  garment.  The  skehton  of  Mentone,  discovtnd  by 
M.  lliviere,  pri'.sented  a  similar  appearance. 

Thus  the  taste  for  adornment,  so  striking  at  the  jtn  sent 
day   in   the   mo.st  savage   as   also    in    (ho    eivilized    nations 


The  Cro-Manwn  Race — Arts.  \2\ 


•.:> 


existed  in  tliu  troglodytic  tribes  of  the  quaternary  opocli. 
Tliore  are,  moreover,  uiimcrou.s  proofs  of  tliis  fact.  The 
fragments  of  necklaces,  bracelets,  etc.,  h.avc  been  fi)\ind  in  a 
great  number  of  stations.  In  most  cases  marine  shells, 
sometimes  fo.ssil  and  obtained  from  the  tertiary  beds, 
fornad  these  ornaments.  But  the  Cro-Magnon  man  com- 
bined with  the.se  the  teeth  of  the  large  carnivora;  he  cut 
also  witli  the  same  intention  plates  of  ivory,  certain  soft  or 
hard  stones,  and  even  made  beads  of  clay  which  were 
merely  dried  in  the  sun.  Finally,  he  tatooed  himself,  or 
at  least  painted  his  body  with  the  oxides  of  iron  or  man- 
ganese, small  stores  of  which  have  on  several  occasions  been 
lound  in  ditl'erent  stations,  and  which  have  left  their  mark 
upon  the  bones  of  some  skeletons,  for  example,  upon  that  of 
Mentone. 

V.  The  Cro-Magnon  race  has  up  to  this  point  shown 
scarcely  any  superiority  over  the  hunting  tribes  of  America, 
unless  perhaps  it  is  in  the  dexterity  which  they  displayed 
in  tlint  cutting.  But  the  artistic  instincts  which  they 
showed  almost  from  their  first  appearance,  and  the  point 
to  which  they  carried  drawing  and  sculpture  in  the  Made- 
leine age,  gives  them  <|uite  an  exceptional  position  amongst 
those  nations  wiiose  evolution  has  been  arrested  at  the 
lowest  stage  of  social  life.  The  relative  alleviation  of 
climatic  conditions,  the  diminuti<iu  of  large  and  ferocious 
animals  involving  the  multiplication  of  useful  species  and 
especially  that  of  the  reindeer,  placed  at  this  epoch  the 
Cro-Magnon  man  in  conditions  of  welfare  unknown  to  his 
predecessors,  lie  profited  by  it  in  developing  in  a  most 
unexpected  manner  his  very  superior  talents. 

As  a  general  rule  the  greater  number  of  sculptures  repre- 
senting animals  leave,  it  is  true,  much  to  be  desired.  We 
can  indeed  recognise  the  reindeer  represented  in  high 
relief;  nor  would  it  be  difficult  to  recognise  as  a  mammoth 
the  little  carving  made  from  the  antler  of  the  reindeer 
discovered  at  Montitstruc.  Nevertheless,  the.^e  .specimens 
would  give  but  a  poor  idea  of  Magdalenean  art.     The  ivory 


322  The  Human  Species. 

dajiger  handles  fuiinil  by  Vi.  Pcccadoau  tie  I'l^le  by  the 
side  of  tlie  mammoth  i'ortnnately  confirm  tliis  impression. 
In  botli  a  reindeer  is  represented  crouching,  the  legs  bent, 
the  head  stretched  out  and  the  antlers  lying  along  the 
body  so  as  nut  to  inconvenience  tlie  hand  which  should 
hold  it,  'J'lif  attitudes  are  so  natural,  and  the  proportions 
so  exact,  that  a  decorative  sculptor  of  the  present  day,  in 
treating  the  same  subject,  could  scarcely  do  better  than 
copy  his  antique  predecessor. 

Drawing  or  rather  engraving  was  much  more  commonly 
practised  than  sculpture.  It  otVcrs  also  more  points  of 
interest.  Armed  with  their  point  of  flint,  the  quaternary 
artists  engraved  in  turn  the  bone  and  the  antlers  of  the 
reindeer,  ivory  frum  the  mammoth,  and  stones  of  different 
kinds.  Sometimes  they  endeavoured  to  re])roduce  the  plants 
or  animals  around  tlu-m  ;  at  other  times  they  followed  their 
own  fancv,  and  made  designs  of  ornamentation,  in  which  we 
meet  with  almost  all  the  juinciplcs  reinvented  many 
centuries  afterwards.  The  multiplicity  and  the  variety  of 
this  kind  of  engraving  show  nnich  imagination  and  a  real 
faculty  of  invention. 

The  faculty  of  imitation  is  e(iually  striking  in  drawings 
representing  real  objects,  animals  in  particular.  They  are 
often  very  remarkable  for  firmness  of  touch,  showing  a 
perfect  comprehcnsiim  of  the  whole,  and  reproducing  the 
details  with  such  exactness  that  we  are  not  only  able 
unerringly  to  recogni.se  the  group  but  even  the  species 
represented  by  the  artist.  Thus  we  have  found  successively 
tiie  ox,  the  aurochs,  the  horse,  the  reindeer,  the  elk,  the 
Htug,  the  sleinbock,  a  cetacean,  certain  fishes,  etc.  After 
thcHC  faithful  representations,  the  models  of  which  we  know, 
there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  exactness  with  which 
certain  extinct  aninuds  hav(>  been  drawn.  This  viry  simple 
coiiHideratirjn  gives  great  interest  to  the  drawing  of  the 
cave  bear  found  by  M.  (larrigou  iqxm  a  ]»iecc  of  Mitssat 
schist,  and  to  those  of  the  mammoth  discovered  by  M. 
Ijartet  in  the  I'erigord  caves.     'I'li.inks  lo  the  Intler  and  to 


The  Cro- Milt; lion   Race — y/;-/jr.  323 

\vli:it  we  know  from  the  inaiumotlis  preserved  in  ice  in 
Siberia,  an  artist  of  the  present  day  might  produce  in 
ahnost  exact  detail  the  portrait  of  this  giant  of  the  ancient 
world,  which  disappeared  so  long  ago. 

VI.  Man  figures  very  rarely  in  these  drawings  or  sculptures, 
and  the  representations  of  our  species  which  have  been  met 
with  up  to  the  present  time,  display  a  relative  inferiority 
whieli  is  indee.l  most  strange.  The  small  ivory  statue  found 
l.v  M.  de  A'ibraye  at  Laugerie-Basse  scarcely  testifies  to 
even  the  infancy  of  the  art.  It  is  a  woman,  whose  sox  we 
are  able  to  recognise  by  a  detail  doubtless  exaggerated,  but 
long,  stiff  and  with  very  strange  protuberances  at  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  loins.  The  crouching  human  form  found 
bv  M.  TAiibo  Landes(|uc  in  the  same  locality  is  still  more 
ill-formed.  The  drawings  of  men  or  women  are  scarcely 
better,  and  the  contrast  sometimes  presented  upon  the  same 
specimen  between  them  and  drawings  of  animals  is  most 
strauf^e.  M.  I'Abbe  Landcsque's  reindeer  ivomaii  is  grotesque, 
whilst  the  hind  legs  of  the  animal,  which  alone  have  been 
preserved,  present  all  the  qualities  which  I  have  noticed 
above  and  which  may  be  observed  in  the  splendid  horse's 
head  engraved  upon  the  other  side  of  the  bone.  In  M. 
Ma-ssenat's  auroclts  man,  the  animal  has  much  beauty  both 
in  form  and  movement ;  the  man  is  stiff,  without  proportion 
or  truth. 

This  c<nilr;i.st  is  too  great  and  too  constant  to  be  accidental. 
It  must  be  the  result  of  a  cause  arising  perhaps  from  some 
superstitious  idea  similar  to  certain  modern  superstitions. 
When  Catlin  had  finished  his  first  portrait  of  the  Red-Skin, 
some  of  the  tribe  looked  upon  him  as  a  dangerous  sorcerer, 
who  had  robbed  the  model  of  part  of  himself.  Perhaps  some 
imilar  idea  may  have  ])revcnted  the  artists  of  the  Vezere 
tVom  studying  the  human  figure,  for  it  always  happens  that 
when  they  attempt  to  reproduce  it  their  graving  tool  hesi- 
tates, and  loses  all  its  good  qualities. 

These  imperfect  representations,  therefore,  tell  us  nothing 
of  the  appearance  or  proportions  of  the  race.    The  most  we  can 


3-4  ^/'<'  IIuuhDi  Species. 

say,  it"  we  accept  the  interpretations  of  MM.  rAMK'Landesque 
and  Piette,  i.s  tliat  it  wasuinaikaldy  hairy.  But  this  opinion, 
which  rests  chiefly  upon  tlie  drawing  of  the  reindeer  woman, 
seems  to  me  to  he  contradicted  by  that  of  the  aurochs  man, 
whose  small  pointed  beard  scarcely  extends  as  far  as  the 
angle  of  the  jaw-bone.  The  horizontal  liatching  \ipon  the 
legs  and  body  cannot,  it  appears  to  me,  be  taken  for  hairs, 
because  it  crosses  at  right  angles  the  directittu  which  would 
have  been  tjiken  by  the  latter.  I  should  much  rather  con- 
sider them  as  lines  of  painting,  a  kind  of  decoration  which 
we  know  to  have  been  held  in  hi<'h  estimation  amongst 
these  tribes. 

VII.  However  bad  they  may  be,  the  drawings  which  I 
have  just  described  furnish  us,  nevertheless,  with  some  facts 
respecting  the  mode  of  life  pursued  by  these  hunters.  That 
of  i\\c  aurochs  man  inftjrms  us  that  they  followed  the  largest 
game  naked,  a.s  is  often  the  case  with  the  lied-Skins,  their 
hair  rai.sed  in  a  tuft  on  the  top  of  the  hea<l,  and  armed  only 
with  the  lance  or  javelin.  The  whale  man  is  also  naked, 
and  the  immense  arm  which  he  stretches  out  as  far  as  the 
fin  of  the  fish,  seems  to  indicate  that  he  has  fought  and  con- 
(juercd  this  monster,  which  had  doubtless  run  aground  in 
.some  shallow.  Jjut,  IVom  this  fact  alone,  it  foll<»ws  that  the 
quaternary  man  of  IVrigord  must  .sometimes  have  left  his 
mountains  and  travelletl  as  far  im  the  sea-shore.  His  con- 
t<'mj)oiaries  in  the  Pyrenees  did  the  same,  a.s  is  proved  by 
the  drawings  of  seals  discovered  in  the  grottoes  ot  Gourdan 
and  Duruthy. 

Again,  thf)sc  deposits  which  are  siluatetl  at  the  greatest 
distance  inland  have  often  furnished  olyects  which  can  only 
have  been  obtained  upon  the  sea-shore.  At  Cro-Magnon 
more  than  three  hundred  shells  of  Littonna  littorra,  an 
oceanic  specicH,  have  been  fotuid.  On  the  other  hand  the 
Cifprcua  rufa  and  C.  lurlda  found  upon  the  Laugerie-Ba-sse 
Kkclcton,  which  I  have  mentioned  above,  are  uiKpiestionably 
Mediterranean.  Sometimes  the  ujolluscs  peculiar  to  the  two 
regions  have  been  found  in  the  sanu.'  place.      In  the  (Ioui<lan 


The  Cro-Magnon   Race — Life.  325 

grotto,  ill  tlie  middle  of  the  central  PyrencL'S,  M.  Pietto 
found  five  oceanic  species,  one  Mediterranean,  and  five 
common  to  both  seas.  The  fosail  shells  of  the  Perij'ord 
dep<t.sits  were  generally  liruiight  from  the  fahui  of  Touraine, 
those  of  (Jourdan  must  have  been  collected,  partly  in  the 
IjiUides  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dax,  and  partly  near 
IVrjdgnan.  In  this  sjinie  grotto  M.  Piette  discovered  a 
pumice-stone,  which  had  been  used  in  polishing  needles,  and 
which  he  considered  had  come  from  the  volcanic  region  of 
Airde. 

From  these,  and  some  other  analogous  facts,  M,  Piette  and 
M.  de  Mortillet  have  thought  there  is  sufficient  reason  to 
suppose  that  the  tribes  of  the  Vezere  had  no  fixed  habitation, 
but  led  a  nomad  life,  visiting  in  turn  the  shores  of  the  two 
seas,  hunting  in  the  mountains  during  the  summer  the  game 
of  the  season,  and  passing  the  winter  in  a  warmer  climate. 
We  cannot  adopt  this  hypothesis.  The  ever-increasing  fauna 
among  the  cooking  lUhvls  denotes  a  population,  which,  as  it 
multiplied  in  every  way,  made  more  and  more  use  of  the 
resources  of  the  country.  These  .same  heaps  furni.shed 
Lartet  with  reindeer  bones  of  every  age,  amongst  which  were 
those  of  young  fawn.s.  Our  great  authority  concludes  from 
this  fact  that  the  tribe  was  .st;itionary  during  tiic  entire  year, 
and  we  believe  him  to  be  right.  The  man  of  Cro-Magnon, 
\mX  Madeleine  and  Oourdan,  must  undoubtedly  have  always 
been  within  reach  of  the  reindeer,  from  which  they  obtained 
nourishment,  anus  ami  clothing.  But  the  migrations  of  this 
animal,  under  the  influence  of  a  i)ut  slightly  varying  mari- 
time climate,  could  not  have  been  very  extensive,  and  the 
troglodytes  of  Perigord  or  the  Pyrenees,  if  they  wished 
to  keep  within  its  range,  would  not  have  had  such  expedi- 
tions to  undertake,  as  those  of  the  lled-Skins  in  pursuit  of 
the  bi.son. 

This  serai-stationary  life  did  not  exclude  travels  by  land 
or  even  by  sea.  Among  the  fossil  shells  found  at  Laugerie- 
r>asse,  there  are  .some  which  could  only  have  come  from  the 
isle  of  Wight,     Now,  iu  the  age  of  the  reindeer,  there  was 


326  The  JIuuuDi  Species. 

no  longor  land  comnuinication  between  France  and  Enj^'lanil. 
As  M.  Fischer  has  reniavkeJ,  the  presence  of  these  shells  in 
a  continentiil  station  proves  the  existence  of  naviijation. 

But,  can  it  really  have  been  the  man  of  the  Vezere  who 
went  to  seek  these  objects  of  adornment  on  the  other  side  of 
the  channel  ?  It  is  difficult  to  believe  that  these  mountain 
tribes  could  have  crossed  the  sea.  It  is  much  more  likely 
that  this  voyage  was  accomplished  by  contemporaries,  who, 
by  long  residence  on  the  sea  coast,  had  developed  navigating 
instincts.  They,  doubtless,  would  bring  from  the  English 
island  those  shells  regarded  as  precious  jewels,  which  would 
then  pass  in  exchange  from  hand  to  hand,  till  at  length  they 
reached  the  valleys  of  Perigord.  Traffic  of  this  kind  can 
alone  explain  this  existence  of  an  oyster-shell  from  the  Red 
Sea  in  the  Thayngen  grotto  explored  by  M.  C.  Mayer,  near 
to  .Schaafthauscii.  We  know,  moreover,  that  shells  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  are  in  our  day  brought,  by  a  perfectly  similar 
commerce,  as  far  as  the  tribes  of  Red-Skins  inhabiting  the 
sliorfs  of  the  Atlantic. 

VJII.  The  history  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race,  founded  upt.u 
the  industrial  remains  which  it  has  be<]ueathed  to  us, 
still  presents  many  questions  answered  in  various  ways  l)y 
savants  of  the  most  (litVereiit  (tpinious.  I  shall  only  point 
them  out  cursorily. 

\)\<\  the  quaternary  trilies  confine  thenisilves  to  hunling 
those  animal  species  which  are  subject  to  us,  and  by  wliieh 
lliey  were  then  surrounded.  Diil  they  never  domesticate  the 
horse,  or  the  reindeer  ? 

M.  Toussaint  luus  answered  the  first  ([Uestion  in  the  aflir- 
mative,  and  M.  (Jervais  the  second.  The  accumulation,  often 
pr(Mligi(»us,  of  the  bones  of  thi'se  animals  is  thus  explained 
l»y  all.  At  Solutre,  a  kind  of  bone  hollow,  formed  almost 
exclusively  of  the  bones  of  the  horse,  surrounds,  so  to  speak, 
the  space  occupied  Ity  liearths  and  .sepultures.  It  coinpri.se.s 
the  renutins  of  at  hast  forty  thousand  lK»rses,  amongst  which 
wo  only  occnxionally  meet  with  either  foals  or  old  animals. 
The  immense  majority  were  kilhd  at  the  age  of  froni  fom*  to 


The  Cro-Magnon  Race — Domestic  Animals.     327 

oiglit  years.  This  strange  accumulation  of  remains  furnished 
by  one  species,  and  the  choice  of  animals  in  their  prime,  are, 
in  the  ojiinion  of  M.  Toussaint,  inexplicable  facts,  unless  we 
admit  the  existence  of  great  herds  from  which  man  could 
draw  supplies  at  will.  The  arguments  brought  forward  in 
favour  of  the  domestication  of  the  reindeer  are  almost  of  the 
same  nature.  M.  Piette,  however,  ailmits  that  the  latter, 
long  hunted  in  a  wild  state,  was  only  domesticated  towards 
the  close  of  the  quaternar}'  period.  His  opinion  rests  upon 
tiie  proportion  of  reintlccr  bones  which  increase  in  number 
almost  suddenly  in  the  upper  layers  of  the  Gourdan  grotto. 
M.  Piette  also  draws  attention  to  certain  drawings  in  which 
rt'inJeer  are  represented,  having  upon  the  neck  the  appear- 
ance of  a  halter. 

To  these  arguments,  which  arc  evidently  not  devoid  of 
value,  it  has  been  objected  that  man  may  very  well  have 
boon  able  to  tame  some  individuals,  without  necessarily 
<lomesticating  the  species  ;  that  the  multiplicati<m  and  titili- 
s:iti(»n  of  certain  kinds  of  game  under  general  and  better 
understood  conditions,  readily  account  for  the  preference 
accorded  to  them  at  certain  periods  ;  and  that  a  practised 
hunter  would,  without  difficvdty,  choose  from  among  the 
herd    the    one    he   wished    to    kill.     All   the    facts    brou'dit 

O 

forward  by  MM.  Gervais,  Toussaint,  and  Piette  with  regard 
to  France,  are  thus  explained  without  much  difficulty.  As 
to  countries  situated  more  to  the  north,  the  facts  obtained  by 
M.  Fraas  from  the  grottoes  of  Suabia,  and  Ids  philological 
risearches  seem  to  support  the  opinions  of  these  .savants. 
It  i.s  evident  that  the  problem  of  the  domestication  of  the 
h<)rse  and  the  reindeer  by  quaternary  man  demands  further 
-hidy,  and  may  assume  an  entirely  local  character. 

I  should  say  almost  the  .same  with  regard  to  social  organisa- 
tion. Wi>  cannot  doubt  but  that  the  tribes  of  La  Madeleine 
and  of  iJrunitpiel  recognised  chiefs,  and  that  it  was  for  them 
tho.se  daggei-s  of  mammoth  ivory  were  carved,  of  which  I 
have  spoken  above.  They  were  evidi-ntly  state  arms.  But 
was  this   universally  the   cn.,e  ?      W;is  tlitic,  .vm   anniiigst 


J 


28  The  Human  Species. 


these  tribes,  a  true  hierarchy,  every  grade  of  which  was 
marked  by  certain  in.si((nia  ?  Certain  Large  portions  of  rein- 
deer antlers,  presenting  a  tolerably  uniform  appearance, 
diminished  in  size  by  hand,  and  invariably  decorated  with 
special  care,  have,  it  has  been  tliought,  offered  sufficient 
proof  for  these  facts.  In  some  cases  they  are  whole,  in 
others  they  are  pierced  at  one  extremity  with  from  one  to 
four  nnnid  holes,  which  sometimes  encroach  iipon  tlie  original 
drawing.  These  singular  objects  are  certainly  not  arms. 
They  have  been  regarded  as  comvuindevii  batons,  an  inter- 
])retation  which  api)ears  to  be  plausible.  Is  it  not,  however, 
going  rather  too  far,  when  the  number  of  holes  are  regarded 
as  indicating  the  dignity  of  the  possessor,  from  which  it 
would  follow  that  these  tribes  recognised  five  district  grades 
of  chiefs  ? 

Had  the  quaternary  man  in  (juestion  any  belief  in  another 
life?     Had  he  a  religion  ? 

There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  answer  to  the  first  of 
these  fjucstioiis.  '\'\\o  care  bestowed  upon  liurial  places 
sliows  tliat  tlii;  hunters  of  Altiitono,  as  also  those  of  Sulutrt5 
and  ( 'ru-Magntm,  believed  in  tlie  wants  of  tlieir  dead  beyond 
tlie  foiiil).  ( )ur  act|iiaiMtance  with  the  customs  of  so  many 
s.ivage  nations  of  the  ])resent  epoch  forbids  any  other  inter- 
pretation of  the  interment  of  food,  arms,  and  ornaments  with 
till-  b(jdy. 

The  dilliculty  is  ^nati-r  in  solving  the  ])roltleni  of  religion. 
It  is  very  probable  that  tiie  man  of  this  age  had  a  belii'f 
Kimihir  to  thai  which  we  know  to  I'xist  among  nations  lead- 
ing abiioht  the'  same  kind  of  lifi*.  \Ve  can  scarcely  help 
regarding  a  great  number  of  small  objects,  j)iereed  so  as  to 
('nal)lu  them  to  be  worn  roun<l  the  neck,  aa  amulets,  nor 
doubt  that  the  troglodytes  of  the  Ve/ere  or  the  Pyrenees 
attributed  to  them  virt\ies  analogous  to  those  which  are  even 
now  axcril^ed  to  ihem  liy  many  savage  tribes.  AI.  Piette  dis- 
covered «>ne  of  these  amulets  consisting  of  a  plate  ])ierced  in 
the  centre,  from  which  diverging  lines  took  their  rise;  ho 
found  A  Kimilar  embh-m   repeated  three  limes  upon  a  com- 


Tlw  Cro-Magnon  Race — Social  State.        329 

inanderti  hdton.  He  admits  that  they  arc  so  many  represen- 
tations of  the  sun,  and  I  very  willin^dy  accept  this  inter- 
])r('tation.  ]>ut  does  ho  not  exceed  the  limits  of  k'gitiniate 
in<h.iction,  wlicn  he  conchides  from  this  fact  that  the  man  of 
(Jourdan  worshipped  this  heavenly  body,  and  invented  the 
aSVoi  Guil,  afterwards  discovered  by  the  Egyptians  and  Gauls. 
IX.  Finally  the  race  of  Cro-Magnon  was  not  wanting  iii 
either  beauty  or  intelligence.  Taking  its  intelligence  as  a 
whole,  it  seems  to  me  to  present  striking  points  of  resem- 
blance with  the  Algonquin  race,  as  represented  by  the 
earliest  travellers,  and  more  especially  by  missionaries  who 
have  s|>ent  much  time  amongst  these  Ked-Skins.  It  had 
undoubtedly  both  its  good  and  bad  qualities.  Scenes  of 
violence  took  place  upon  the  banks  of  the  Vezbre,  as  Ls 
proved  by  the  hatchet-cut  in  the  skull  of  the  Cro-Magnon 
woman.  On  the  other  hand,  the  burial  places  of  Solutrt^, 
though  containing  many  indented  male  and  female  heads, 
seem  to  show  that  old  age  received  particular  attention,  and 
was,  therefore,  honoured  among  these  tribes.  This  i"ace 
believed  in  another  life  ;  and  the  contents  of  tombs  up<jn 
the  banks  of  the  Vt^zere  and  the  Somme,  seem  to  prove  that 
•A  happy  prairie-land  was  looked  forward  to  here,  as  upon  the 
banks  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  man  of  Perigord,  like  the  Algompiin,  did  nut  ri.se 
above  the  very  lowest  stage  in  the  scjcial  scale  ;  he  remained 
a  hunter,  at  least  till  towards  the  clo.se  of  that  age,  during 
which  he  appeared  among  the  mountains  of  France.  It  is, 
then,  an  enor  to  employ  the  term  cirilhation  in  speaking  of 
this  race.  Yet  he  wjus  endowed  with  an  intelligence  b«ith 
pliable  and  capable  of  improvement.  We  have  seen  that  he 
Mjade  progress  and  changes  by  himself,  a  fact,  of  which  no 
trace  is  to  be  observed  in  his  American  representiitive,  so 
that,  in  this  re.spect,  he  was  undoubtedly  his  superior.  And 
hustly,  his  artistic  instincts,  and  the  remarkable  productions 
which  he  has  left,  gain  for  him  a  special  place  among  the 
savage  races  of  all  times. 

X.  During  all  the  first  part  of  tlie  reindeer  age,  the  Cro- 


330  The  I / 21  man  S/>(r/i'S. 

Magnon  race  supported  itself  in  the  state,  of  wliicli  I  have 
just  been  pointing  out  the  principal  features.  But  from 
the  commencement  of  the  second  half  of  the  same  age, 
during  the  deposition  of  the  red  diluvium  and  the  upper 
loess,  we  observe  an  unmistakable  decline,  which  becomes 
more  and  more  striking  as  we  proceed.  The  working  of 
bone  and  reindeer  antlers  diminishes  and  returns  to  its 
former  rudeness ;  flint  cutting,  on  the  contrary,  gains  in 
favour,  and  in  some  places,  as  in  the  grotto  discovered  at 
Saint  Martin  d'Excideuil  by  M.  Parrot,  acquires  a  most 
remarkable  finish.  But  this  very  perfection  seems  to  herald 
the  approach  of  a  new  age,  and  to  betray  the  influence  of  a 
strange  element. 

The  fact  is,  that  during  this  period  an  ainelit»ration  in  the 
general  conditions  of  life  was  taking  place.  Europe  had  at 
length  risen  above  the  waves ;  a  continental  climate  wjvs 
succeeding  to  the  maritime  climate  ;  the  weather  was  more 
settled  ;  warm  summers  followed  winters  more  severe,  but 
less  rainy  ;  the  glaciers  consr([uently  retreated  and  hecame 
confined  within  their  |)resent  limits;  and  conse(|Uently  again, 
the  fauna  became  divided.  Animals  fond  of  cold,  and 
orgaiii.sed  for  a  mountain  life,  such  a.s  the  chamois  and 
liouquetin,  were  content  to  emigrate  i)i<iltitude,iind  followed 
the  glaciers  in  their  retreat  to  our  highest  mountain  summits. 
The  reindeer,  in  no  way  adapted  for  climbing,  was  forced 
to  emigrate  ni  latitude  and  go  further  north.  Its  herds 
became  more  and  more  rare,  and  at  length  disappeared  from 
our  countries,  where,  even  if  domesticated,  it  could  not  have 
continueil  for  long,  'ihe  human  jxtpulation,  who  had,  doubt- 
less, for  centuries  lived  upon  this  animal,  and  obtained  from 
it  their  clothing,  arms,  and  implements,  nnist  have  felt  the 
change  intensely,  losing  with  the  reindeir,  what  we  may  call 
their  statT  of  life. 

What  happ<'ned  n»)W  ?  According  to  MM.  ("urtailhac, 
Forel,  and  de  Mortillet,  man  disappeared  or  emigrated  with 
the  animal  which  had  be(;omn  necessary  to  him,  and  the 
valleys    of  IV'rigonI,   .Muconnais,   and  the  I\renees   bewmio 


The  Cro-Magnon  Race—  Duration.  331 

tininliu])ito(l.  Tlicy  lioUl  that,  after  tlie  close  of  tlie  reiiidocr 
aye,  tliuro  is  an  immense  space,  a  jjrcat  gap,  during  which 
t!je  fauna  was  ronewctl,  and  after  which  a  new  race  of  men 
suddenly  made  their  appearance,  who  polished  stone  instead 
of  cuttin<i  it,  and  surrounded  themselves  with  domestic! 
animals. 

In  spite  of  the  incontestahle  authority  of  the  savants 
whom  I  have  just  named,  their  opinion  has,  I  believe,  gained 
hut  very  few  partisans,  and  has  been  hotly  contested.  It  is 
indeed  possildo,  and  even  probable,  that  a  certain  number  of 
stations  were  abandoned  during  the  period  in  (piestion,  and 
that  the  inhabitants  moved  northwards  to  seek  those  condi- 
tions of  climate  and  facilities  for  the  chase  to  which  they  had 
been  accustomed.  But  other  tribes  remained  where  they 
were,  yieliling  to  the  new  necessities,  adopting  the  arms  and 
customs  of  the  immigrating  populations,  and  becoming  amal- 
gamated with  tiiem.  I  cannot  here  enter  into  the  geological, 
zoological  and  archaeological  considerations  by  which  this 
view  is  justified.  I  shall  confine  myself  to  mentioning  some 
facts  which  bel(jng  especially  to  anthropology. 

MM.  Louis  Lartet  and  Chapelain  Duparc  discovered  near 
Sorde,  in  the  department  of  the  Basses- Pyrenees,  a  shelter 
in  the  lower  l)ed  of  which,  after  methodical  excavations,  a 
human  skidl  and  bones  were  found,  together  with  a  necklace 
of  the  teeth  of  the  lion  and  bear.  Immediately  above,  and 
mi.xed  with  the  latter,  was  a  thick  layer  of  charcoal  from 
which  the  explorers  obtained  barbed  arrows  of  the  Magda- 
lenean  type,  and  numerous  instruments  and  implements  of 
the  same  age.  Bones  of  the  hoi-se  and  ox  were  mixed  with 
these  products  of  human  industry.  The  reindeer  was  not 
wanting  among  this  cooking  d('hrift,  but  this  species  vas 
more  rare  than  the  others.  Lastly,  above  the  charcoal,  and 
partly  confoundcil  with  its  upper  portion,  they  discovered  a 
layer  which  was,  so  to  speak,  composed  of  Imman  bones. 
The  learned  explorers  here  obtained  several  cut  Hints  similar 
to  the  preceding.  l)ut  they  also  found  a  narrow,  thin  blade, 
JUS  well  as  a  triani,'ular  dairger,  which,  from  its  form  and  the 


JO- 


The  llinuan  Species. 


nature  of  the  work,  is  closely  connected  with  the  finest 
prorhictions  of  the  art  of  pulisheil  stone. 

The  upper  burial  phice  contained  the  remains  of  more 
tlian  thirty  indiviiUials.  Tiiese  bones  liave  been  taken  to 
the  museum,  and  M.  Hamy  has  not  hesitated  in  referring 
them  to  the  Cro-Magnon  race.  I  liad  only  to  confirm  this 
opinion,  as  there  could  be  no  possible  gi'ound  for  doubt.  Upon 
the  bones  of  the  limbs  as  well  as  upon  the  skidls,  all  those 
characters  were  observed  which  have  become  classic  since  the 
great  works  of  MM.  Broca  and  Pruner  Bey. 

Thus,  in  this  curious  grotto  at  Sorde,  we  find  the  super- 
position of  two  archceological  type's,  the  cut  stone  (Pala30- 
lithic),  and  the  polished  stone  (Neolithic)  ;  but  there  is  only 
one  human  race,  that  of  Cro-Magnon.  Is  it  not  evident  that 
tliis  race  must  have  known  both  the  latest  times  of  the  rein- 
deer ago,  and  the  earliest  of  the  present  epoch  ? 

Whilst  accommodating  itself  to  the  new  conditions  of  exist- 
ence, and  accepting  the  industries  of  strangers  more  advanced 
than  itself,  the  little  tribe  of  Sorde  seems  U)  have  preserved 
intact  the  purity  of  its  blood.  This  could  not,  however,  bo 
universally  the  case,  for  the  invasion  must  necessarily  have 
occasioned  crossing.  Here,  again,  facts  fully  justify  all  that 
is  indicated  by  the  theory. 

In  the  cavern  of  rilomint'-Mnrt,  situati'd  upon  a  high 
pl.ite.'iu  of  the  Lozero,  and  .so  th(»n>ughly  investigated  by 
.MM.  Broca  and  Prunieres,  animal  bones  of  the  present  epoch 
alone  have  been  found;  there  were  neither  reindeer,  nor  even 
horse,  ox,  or  stag.  Moreover,  the  head  of  a  lance  or  javelin 
had  been  worked  with  a  fragment  of  hatcliet  in  polished  stone. 
We  here,  then,  find  ourselves  in  the  presence  of  a  population 
much  posterior  to  the  quaternary  period,  and  very  jirobably 
c<nit<'nij>orary  with  that  wliiiji  i.iisi  d  iiuniciinis  (lulnicns  in 
the  neighboinh<»od. 

Now,  the  remnins  ol  tiiis  population  ImIimv  in  a  higli 
degree  traces  of  the.  Cro-M.ignon  tyjie,  modilit-d  partly, 
IKirliaps,  by  the  n<tioM  of  new  conditions  of  life,  but  al.so  by 
ethnological  changes.      The  stature  is  sensibly  diminished  ; 


The  Cro-Mas^non  Race — Duration. 


jj  J 


having  tlcscomloJ  to  a  mean  of  1G2  m.  (5  ft.  I3*7  in).  The 
hreadth  of  the  upper  part  of  the  face  is  less  striking,  and  the 
whole  head  h;is  become  almost  harmonic.  But  the  dolicho- 
cephaly  remains  ;  the  lines  of  tlie  skull  are  almost  unaltered, 
the  orbits  are  always  elongated,  the  nasal  orifices  narrow,  the 
great  majority  of  the  bones  of  the  limbs  especially  have 
preserved  their  very  characteristic  features.  The  same 
grooves  are  observed  in  the  fibula  as  at  Cro-Magnon ;  the 
tibia  is  platycnemic ;  in  the  femur  may  be  observed  that 
extraordinary  prominence  of  the  linea  aspera  which  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  must  curious  features  of  the  race;  finally, 
the  ulna  in  every  ca.sc  possesses  the  sigmoid  cavity,  the 
curve  so  often  pointed  out  as  f<imi(in.  But  at  the  same 
time  we  observe  a  feature  a.s  yet  foreign  to  the  pure  race  of 
Cro-Magnon.  The  olecranon  depression  of  the  humerus  is 
perforated  in  a  number  of  specimens  in  as  great  a  proportion 
as  2(J,  or,  periiaps,  oo  per  cent.  This  feature,  which  we  find 
in  other  fossil  races,  is  of  itself  a  sufficient  indication  of  cross- 
in"',  and  confirms  the  inferences  which  we  might  have 
drawn  from  the  diminution  in  lieight,  modifications  of  the 
face,  etc. 

Similar  facts  are  proved  by  the  two  skulls,  and  the  group 
of  bones  from  Cit'me'nos,  near  Marseille,  which  were  saved 
Irom  destruction  by  M.  Marion. 

Thus,  both  upon  the  Lozere  anil  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Marseille,  the  Cro-Magnon  race  appears  in  the  midst  of  the 
polished  stone  period,  but  with  a  mixture  of  characters  wiiich 
indicates  the  influence  of  a  fresh  element.  We  come  upon  it 
in  tiie  upper  Ciiveunes  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
just  at  the  time  when  its  tribes  were  beginning  to  blend 
with  tho.se  who  had  introduced  among  them  the  first  elements 
of  modern  civilizatit)n.  We  cannot  be  surprised  that  tiiese 
simple  Imnters  should  have  been  more  or  less  ab.sorbed  by  a 
denser  population,  who  possessed  donnsticated  animals  and 
raised  dolmen.s. 

XI.  It  may,  however,  be  said  with  etjual,  and  even  with 
greater  truth,  of  the  Cro-Magnon  as  of  the  Canstadt  race, 


334  '^^^<-^  Hiunan  Species. 

that  it  has  not  disappeared.  It  may  be  traced  through  inter- 
mediate ages,  and  met  with  again  in  certain  populations  of 
the  present  day. 

In  the  neohthic  tombs  phiccd  close  beside  the  quaternary 
burial  places  at  Solutre,  the  old  hunters  of  the  horse  are 
rrprcsL-nted  by  their  descendants,  of  ■whom  the  more  or  less 
modititd  skulls  have  been  discovered.  In  the  sepulchral 
grottoes  of  the  Marne,  .so  intelligently  and  successfully  explored 
by  M.  J.  de  Baye,  the  Cro-Magnon  type  is  found  associated 
with  tho.se  of  four  other  quaternary  races,  and  with  one 
neolithic  race.  In  Germany,  near  the  Taunus ;  in  Belgium, 
in  the  caverns  of  Hamoir  and  at  Nivelles ;  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Pari.s,  in  the  recent  alluvium  of  Grcnelle  ;  in  the 
clays  of  the  harbour  of  Boulogne,  human  remains  dating  from 
the  same  epoch,  and  belonging  to  the  same  race,  have  been 
found.  M.  Piette  discovered  a  Cro-Magnon  skeleton  in  the 
Aisnc,  whilst  excavating  a  Gauli-sh  cemetery  of  the  iron  age. 
At  Paris  even,  the  excavations  of  the  Hotel  Dieu,  those  of 
the  Boulevard  <le  Port  Iloyal,  etc.,  have  brought  to  light 
skulls  of  the  .same  race,  of  probably  as  late  a  date  as  tlu; 
fifth  century,  and  there  are  .some  more  recent  still.  Mi)dern 
specimens  will  most  certainly  be  found.  I  have  myself  twice 
ob.served  in  women  features  which  could  oidy  accord  with 
the  cranial  and  facial  bones  of  the  race  under  discu.ssiou.  Ju 
one  of  them,  the  dysharmony  between  the  face  anil  skull 
wiis  at  least  (piite  as  striking  as  in  the  old  man  of  (jro- 
Magnon  :  the  eye  depre.s.sed  beneath  the  orbital  vault  had 
the  same  heavy  appearance  ;  the  nose  w;is  straight  rather 
than  arched,  the  lips  somewhat  thick,  the  ma.xillary  buncs 
strongly  developed,  the  complexion  very  brown,  the  hair  very 
dark  and  growing  low  on  the  forehead.  A  thick-waisted 
figure,  slightly  ilevdoped  brejists,  haiiils  and  feet  relatively 
Hinall,  8orve<l  to  form  a  whoir,  which,  without  being  attractive, 
was  in  no  way  repulsive. 

The  labours  of  .M.  H.uny  h.ive  extentlcl  ;iii<l  enl.irged 
this  field  of  reHeanh.  lie  has  again  met  with  the  tyj>e  in 
question   amongst   the   Zaraus  collection   of   Basipie    skulls. 


Survivors  of  tJic  Qualcniary  Epoch.        335 

collected  by  MM.  Broca  an(i  Vclasco;  he  has  followed  it  even 
into  Africa  in  the  megaliihic  tombs  explored  principally 
by  General  Faidherbe,  and  to  the  Kabyles  of  the  Boni- 
Masscr  and  the  Djurjura.  It  is,  however,  chiefly  in  the 
Canary  Islands,  in  the  collection  of  the  Barranco-Hundo  of 
IVnt-ritVe,  that  he  has  met  with  skulls,  the  ethnical  relation 
of  which  with  the  oKl  man  of  Cro-Magnon  is  beyond  discus- 
sion. Un  the  other  hand,  some  points  of  comparison,  un- 
fortunately very  few  in  number,  have  led  him  to  regard  the 
Dalocarlians  a.s  connectctl  with  the  same  stock. 

XII.  However  strange  these  results  may  appear,  they  arc 
only  a  repetition  in  the  human  race  of  what  has  already  been 
proved  in  the  case  of  animals.  It  is  now  a  long  time  since 
Lartet  showed  that  at  the  close  of  the  quaternary  age,  and  as 
the  species  peculiar  to  this  age  were  finally  disappearing, 
the  survivors  were  divided  into  three  groups.  Some  remained 
where  they  were,  others  migrated  to  the  north,  and  others 
again  to  the  south.  Perhaps  the  latter  were  only  persistent 
in  Africa,  from  whence  they  had  despatched  their  representa- 
tives to  us,  and  where  we  meet  with  them  still,  whilst  their 
coloDics,  which  were  at  one  time  in  a  flourishing  condition  in 
France,  peri.shed  under  the  influence  of  the  winters  of  the 
present  period.  Finally,  as  an  explanation  is  given  of  the 
ancient  fauna,  and  the  cause  which  brought  about  their 
separation,  we  cannot  be  surprised  to  fiml  human  popula- 
tions presenting  analogous  facts. 

During  the  (luaternary  period,  the  race  of  Cro-Magnon  had 
its  principal  European  centre  of  population  in  the  south-west 
of  France.  The  little  basin  of  the  Vezere  was,  so  to  speak, 
its  capital  ;  its  colonies  spread  into  Italy,  the  north  of  France, 
the  valley  of  the  Meuse,  etc.,  where  they  encountered  other 
races,  to  whom  our  attention  will  soon  be  turned.  But  they 
themselves  were  perhaps  only  a  branch  of  an  African  popula- 
tion, which  ha»l  emigrated  to  France  with  the  hyana,  the 
lion,  the  hippopotamus,  etc  In  this  case,  there  is  no  difti- 
culty  in  explaining  its  existence  at  the  present  day  in  the 
iM.itli-wi  >t   i.f  Africa,  and  in  islands  where  it  would  \ni  pro- 


OJ 


6  IJic  IIii))ian  Species. 


tectfil  from  crossing'.  Suine  of  its  tribes,  curried  ;iway  in  llio 
pursuit  uf  the  reindeer,  will  have  preserved,  in  the  Scandina- 
vian Alps,  the  tall  form,  black  hair,  and  brown  complexion 
which  disting\iishes  Dalecarlians  of  the  neighbouring^  popula- 
tions;  others,  mixing  with  all  the  races  by  which  France  has 
been  successively  invaded,  only  betray  their  ancient  existence 
by  the  phenomena  of  atavism,  which  lays  upon  some  indi- 
viduals the  mark  of  the  old  hunters  of  Purigord. 


CnAPTKR     XXVIII. 

RACES  OF  FURFOOZ. 

I.  In  giving  the  name  of  a  locality  justly  celebrated  in 
anthropology  to  this  group  of  races,  and  in  applying  it 
especially  to  the  two  first,  M.  Hamy  and  I  have  been 
chiefly  actuated  by  the  desire  to  honour  the  long  and 
conscientious  labours,  which  have  led  to  the  discovery  of 
quaternary  man  in  Belgium.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
remind  my  readers  that  it  is  due,  after  Schmerling,  to  M. 
Dupont,  who  during  seven  years,  from  IHi'yi  to  1871,  has 
e.xcavated  more  than  sixty  caverns  or  rock-shelters,  from 
which  he  has  obtained,  independently  of  his  human  fossils, 
about  forty  thousand  animal  bones  and  eighty  thou.sand 
stones  cut  by  the  hand  of  man.  The  race  of  Grcncllc  was 
discovered  by  M.  Emile  ^lartin,  in  18()7,  in  the  gravel  pits 
opened  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  and  aftcrwarils 
characterised  by  M.  Hamy.  The  race  of  La  Trucldre  was 
found  by  M.  Lcgrand  dc  Mercey  in  a  bank  of  the  Seille, 
near  to  the  locidity  of  which  it  beai-s  the  name. 

II.  Considered  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  general 
form  of  the  skull,  these  four  types  arrange  themselves  in  an 
almost  regular  manner.  The  cephalic  imlex  7l)'31  places 
the  first  Furfooz  race  among  mcsaticephali  ;  the  secontl 
Furfooz  race  becomes  sub-brachycephalic  by  its  index  81'39; 
that  of  Crenelle,  whose  index  rises  to  83r)3  in  the  man,  and 
<S3  08  in  the  woman,  ajiproaches  very  nearly  to  brachy- 
ceplialy  properly  so  called.  This  is  also  the  ca.se  with  that 
of  La  Truchere,  the  index  of  whieh  is  8132. 

Let  us  at  once  proceed  to  consider  this  latter,  which,  at 
present  represented  in  quaternary  times  «)nly  by  a  head,  is, 


3 38  The  Human  Species. 

on  tliat  account  alono,  far  less  interesting  than  its  com- 
panions. The  skull  and  face  are  here  remarkable  for  a 
dysharmony  as  striking  as  that  of  the  Cro-^Magnon  head  ; 
but  the  contrast  is  inverse.  The  skull,  in  this  case,  is  broad 
and  short,  -while  the  face  is  long.  The  face  view  of  the 
former  presents  a  very  marked  pentagonal  appearance.  The 
bones  are  all  strongly  developed  in  the  transverse  direction, 
with  the  exception  of  the  inferior  half  of  the  coronal  which 
slants  rapidly  inward  so  as  to  form  a  narrow  forehead.  The 
whole  face  is  relatively  small  and  narrow.  The  nose  is  very 
large  and  long ;  the  massive  cheek  bones  are  slightly  pro- 
minent, and  the  superior  maxillary  bones  are  slightly 
prognathous. 

The  two  races  of  Furfooz,  like  that  of  Crenelle,  have  a 
certain  family  resemblance,  which  does  not  exclude  the 
existence  of  distinctive  characters.  Thus,  in  the  mesati- 
cephalic  race  of  Furfooz  the  antero-posterior  arc  of  the  skull 
produces  above  the  small  but  well  marked  superciliary 
ridges,  a  very  retreating  forehead,  and  is  continued  with  no 
further  inflexion  than  a  slight  depression  at  the  sutures. 
The  face  is  broad  and  the  index  almost  the  same  as  that 
of  the  race  of  Cro-Magnon,  On  account  of  the  shortening 
of  the  skull,  the  head  is,  however,  harmonic,  instead  of 
being  dyaluiiinonlc  as  in  the  troglodytes  of  Perigord.  A 
slightly  concave,  but  sufficiently  prominent  nose,  Sijuare 
orbits,  slightly  marked  canine  fossa?,  and  an  almost  orthog- 
nathous  superior  maxillary  bone  complete  this  face,  the 
bony  framework  of  which  has  a  somewhat  finely  cut  and 
delicate  appearance. 

In  this  sub-brachycephalic  race  of  the  .same  locality,  the 
fonrhead  rises  in  a  somewhat  perpendicular  line  to  the  level 
of  tlie  frontal  eminences.  The  arc  then  becomes  suildenly 
Hattenetl  as  far  as  the  first  third  of  the  parietal  ])ones  where 
the  curve  bcconuH  more  infhclcd  and  is  coMtinucd  with 
almost  unbroken  regularity  to  the  foranu-n  magnum  of  tlir 
occipital.  We  meet  with  ahnost  (ho  sauu^  iinhx  in  (ho 
face;   but   the   oibit.>    .'nil    ihc    r:i<c    .-iri-    l.iiii_'ir,    (he    r'.-miiic 


/Kdtrs  of  La    Tniclurc  and  of  G  rend  It.       339 

foss.T  form  (loop  iiidLiitations,  the  supi.ri(jr  niaxillaiy  bono 
projects  forward,  the  teeth  follow  the  same  direction,  and 
the  prognathism  is  very  striking. 

In  the  race  of  Grenelle,  the  very  prominent  glal)elUi  and 
full  superciliary  ridges  give  a  slightly  oblique  direction  to 
the  base  of  the  forehead.  But  the  arc  soon  rises  and  is 
r«'gularly  developed  without  either  projection  or  depression. 
TIk-  skull,  viewed  from  the  face,  appears  as  well  proportioned 
a-s  in  pn»fik'.  The  face  harmonises  with  it.  The  cheek 
bones  arc  well  developed  and  prominent ;  the  canine  fossaa 
high,  but  not  deep;  the  orbits  approach  the  Kipiare  form; 
the  bones  of  the  nose  are  concave  and  sufficiently  pro- 
minent. Finally,  the  maxillary  bone  and  the  teeth  are 
eipially  prognathous,  but  less  so  than  in  the  preceding  nice. 

III.  The  men  of  Grenelle,  and  still  more  those  of  Furfooz, 
were  of  small  stature.  The  former  reached  a  mean  of 
1  (!2  111.  (.)ft.  .3"8  in.),  but  the  latter  descended  to  1'.53  m. 
(oft.  0*2  in.)  This  is  almost  exactly  the  mean  height  of 
the  Lapps.  Yet  this  reduced  stature  would  neither  exclude 
the  vigour  nor  the  agility  necessary  to  savage  populations. 
The  bones  of  the  limbs  and  trunk  arc  strong,  and  the 
eminences  and  depressions  of  tlnir  surfac^e  indii-atc  a  very 
marked  muscular  development. 

With  the  exception  of  this  general  appearance  of  strength 
superior  to  that  which  is  generally  met  with,  the  skeleton 
f  the  men  of  Furfooz  and  Crenelle  strongly  resembles  that 
of  men  of  the  present  day.  The  tibia  in  particular  assumes 
the  prismatic  triangular  form  which  we  are  accustomed  to 
observe  in  them.  We  remark,  nevertheless,  the  appearance 
of  a  character  which  we  have  as  yet  only  noticed  in  the 
cavern  of  rHomme-Mt)rt,  where  we  considered  it  to  be 
I  sign  of  crossing.  The  olecranon  depression  is  often  per- 
forated in  the  races  now  umler  discu.ssion.  In  Belgium  M. 
Dupont  foun«l  this  tlisposition  to  exist  in  the  men  of  the 
licssc  in  the  proportion  of  30  per  cent.  M.  llamy  carries  it 
to  is  |>cr  cent,  in  the  fo.ssil  man  of  Grenelle.  and  to  i<i()  i>er 
cent,  only  in  the  French  of  the  present  day. 


340        *  The  Iliiinaii  Species. 

IV.  Tlic  races  of  Fiirfooz,  coining  after  those  whose  history 
we  have  just  sketched,  must  have  come  in  coutact,  and  some- 
times have  formed  connections  with  them.  The  clearest 
demonstration  of  tliis  fact  is  at  Solutre,  where,  side  by  side 
with  Cro-Magnon  skulls,  two  heails  were  found  belonging  to 
the  race  of  Grenelle.  Intellectual  and  social  development 
nuist  have  progressed  almost  equally  among  men  united  into 
a  single  tribe. 

Our  brachycephali  have,  however,  had  their  special  centres 
of  population  where  wc  can  examine  them  in  their  home. 
The  researches  of  M.  Dupont  have  been  chiefly  devoted  to 
Belgium  and  the  valley  of  the  Lcsse.  To  give  an  idea  of 
what  the  men  of  Furfooz  were,  we  need  do  no  more  than 
reproduce  an  abridged  account  of  all  that  the  learned  explorer 
of  these  caverns  lias  said  upon  the  subject. 

V.  The  men  of  the  Lcsse,  like  those  of  the  Vezere,  inhabited 
caverns.  One  of  their  complete  stations  comprisctl  the  grotto 
where  they  lived,  and  a  funeral  grotto.  M,  Dupont  found 
them  almost  in  juxta-position  at  Furfooz,  wlu'ie  the  Troxi 
den  yuton.H  presented  all  the  characters  of  a  human  habita- 
tion, ami  the  Trou  du  Frontal  those  of  a  place  of  sepulture. 
These  two  localities  alone  would  have  furnished  many 
materials  for  the  history  of  these  ancient  populations.  Never- 
theless tht!  Trou  de  Chidcux  excels  them  in  this  respect. 
It  w.'us  long  inhabited  by  man,  who  left  there  a  considerable 
accuinulation  of  that  refuse  whieh  is  now  turned  to  such 
good  account  by  science.  'J'Ik-  roof  one  day  fell  in;  the 
iiihabitjints  cseajied,  leaving  all  that  was  buried  in  their 
dwelling.  Thus,  when  this  heaj)  t»f  rubbish  came  to  be  di.s- 
turbeil  by  the  pick-axe,  all  was  found  just  as  it  had  been 
left  at  the  moment  of  the  catastrophe,  and  it  is  with  good 
reasfjii  that  ihr*  (Irotfoof  (Jhaleux  has  been  called  a  little 
fjuat^-niary  Pompeii. 

The  man  of  ('halt.iix  chiefly  employed  flint  and  reindeer 
horn  to  sujjply  his  several  wants,  'J'lie  former  w.'us  used  for 
the  greater  number  of  his  stock  of  implements  ;  but  he  gave 
himself    little   trouble    in    varying    or    perfecting   the  form. 


Junes  of  Fur/002.  '       34 1 

Narrow,  olon^ated  bhulcs  cut  with  a  sin^^le  blow  upon  one 
siile,  with  two  or  three  upon  the  opposite  face,  and  what 
are  called  knives,  seem  to  be  the  model  from  which  all  the 
iiiiplenients  are  worked.  Notched  upon  one  q^V^q  they 
l)ecamc  saws;  rounded  and  rocut  at  one  extremity  they 
were  transformed  into  scrapers,  well  adapted  for  scraping 
and  taking  the  hair  off  skins  ;  tapered  and  chipped  to  a 
point,  they  furnished  h(*illlns,  piercers,  etc.  As  fur  rein- 
deer horn,  it  was  divided  into  pieces  from  10  to  15  centi- 
metres (39 — ')D  inches)  long,  and  then  shaped  so  as  to 
serve  for  lances  or  javelins.  They  may  possibly  have  some- 
times received  a  point  of  Hint.  But  M.  Dupont  assures  us 
that  there  are  no  grounds  fur  supposing  that  the  bow  and 
arrow  were  in  use  among  those  troglodytes. 

The  arras  of  the  tribe  of  Chaleux,  were  then  much  inferior 
to  those  of  the  Vdzerc  or  of  Solutrd.  It  still,  however,  hunted 
large  game,  and  knew  also  how  to  obtain  the  small.  Its 
ancient  dwelling-place  has  furni.shed  the  remains  of  numerous 
horses,  several  oxen,  some  reindeer,  sixteen  foxes,  five  wild 
boars,  three  chamois,  tluee  aurochs,  one  brown  bear,  one 
Saiga  antelope,  etc. 

The  bones  also  of  the  hare,  squirrel,  water-rat  and  Nor- 
wegian rat,  have  been  found  here ;  the  remains  of  several 
birds,  amongst  others  those  of  the  ptarmigan  ;  and  remains 
of  fresh  water  tish.  The  fauna  of  the  Trou  des  Nutons  is 
almost  identical,  but  the  proportion  of  species  is  sometimes 
inverted.  A  much  smaller  number  of  horses  and  much 
•  Moatcr  number  of  wild  boars  have  been  di.scovcred  there. 
Here  again,  ns  in  the  stations  of  the  Cro-Magnon  race,  the 
larger  species  are  scarcely  represented  by  more  than  the 
bones  of  the  head  and  limbs,  all  those  containing  marrow 
having  been  cxircfully  broken  up. 

Like  the  preceding  race,  that  of  Furfooz  made  use  of 
the  skins  of  slain  animals  for  clothing.  This  is  proved  by 
the  bone  needles  found  at  Chaleux.  But  they  arc  here 
nuich  ruilcr  in  form  than  those  of  La  Madeleine  and  other 
sin.ilar  stations.     Short  and  thick,  thev  might  be  taken  for 


342  The  I  fit  man  Species. 

small  bodkins  were  it  not  for  the  030  witli  wliieli  they  are 
pierced. 

VI.  The  Bel^nan  troglodytes  were,  from  many  points  of 
view,  far  behind  those  of  Perigord  and  Maconnais.  The 
monuments  of  their  industry  are  much  inferior  to  all  that 
we  have  seen  amongst  their  predecessors,  and  they  show  no 
indication  of  the  artistic  aptitudes  so  remarkable  in  the  maw 
of  the  Vezere.  They  surpass  him  however,  in  one  essential 
point ;  they  had  invented,  or  received  from  elsewhere,  the 
art  of  manufacturing  a  rude  kind  of  pottery,  of  which  M. 
Dupont  has  found  the  remains  in  all  the  stations  which  he 
has  explored,  and  obtained  in  the  Trou  du  Frontal  (vagmenis 
in  sufficient  number  to  restore  the  vase  of  which  they  had 
once  formed  part. 

This,  and  some  other  facts,  which  it  would  take  too  long 
to  discuss  here,  have  led  si»mi'  of  the  most  competent  sdvants, 
amongst  others  MM.  Cartailhac  and  C'azalis  de  Fondouce,  to 
regard  the  Trou  du  Frnutal  and  the  other  contemporary 
stations  as  belonging  to  the  neolithic  stone  period,  and  not 
to  the  fpiaternary  epoch. 

IJut  the  character  of  the  fauna  discovered  in  the  grottoes 
of  Chaleux  and  Furfooz  makes  it  impossible  in  our  opinion 
to  accept  this  oj)inion,  which  rests  chielly  upon  archieological 
considerations.  To  refer  the  ag(i  of  polished  stone  to  an 
epoch  when  the  chamois,  botKiuetin,  and  Saiga  antelope  lived 
in  lielgium  \\ith  the  Norwegian  rat  and  the  ptarmigan,  would 
Ikj  making  it  very  tlistant.  This  question  may  perhaps  call 
for  further  study  ;  but  the  ju.xtaposition  of  these  species  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  l)inant  is,  in  our  O2)inion,  a  proof  that 
the  (piaternary  period  had  not  then  drawn  to  a  close. 

Vil.  'J'he  troglodytes  of  Belgium  i)aintcd  the  face  and 
perhaps  the  body,  like  those  of  I'erigord.  The  ornaments 
in  use  at  Chaleu.x  and  Furfooz  were  almost  the  same  as 
those  which  we-  have  found  in  the  south  of  Franco.  We 
never,  however,  find  an)ong.sL  them  any  object  borrowed  from 
marine  fauna.  This  is  u  curiotis  fact,  as  the  man  of  the 
T,'— '•  j'.i!ni.\  .'il    in    ^.••irch   of  his  jrirc(^^  as   well   as  of  the 


Races  of  Fiirfooz.  343 

roiif,']i  niatcriiil  for  his  implements  and  arms  much  greater 
distances  than  that  wliicli  separated  hira  from  the  sea. 

In  fact,  the  principal  ornaments  of  tlie  men  of  the  Lesse 
were  fossil  shells.  Some,  it  is  true,  were  ohtained  from  the 
Devonian  rocks  in  their  vicinity  ;  hut  the  greater  part  came 
from  a  considerahle  distance,  chiefly  from  Champagne  and 
from  Grignon  near  Versailles.  The  flints,  which  our  troglo- 
dytes used  in  such  great  numbers,  were  obtained,  not  from 
Hainault  or  the  province  of  Liege,  but  almost  entirely  from 
Champagne.  There  are  some  even  which  could  only  have 
been  collected  in  Touraine,  on  the  banks  of  the  Loire. 
Judging  from  the  localities  of  these  ditferent  objects,  we 
might  conclude  that  the  known  world  of  the  troglodytes  of 
the  Lesse  scarcely  extended  in  a  northerly  direction  for  13 
to  2.J  miles,  whilst  to  the  south  it  stretched  to  a  distance  of 
'l:^()  to  300  miles. 

There  is  something  very  strange  in  this  fact,  of  which, 
however,  M.  Dupont  seems  to  have  given  what  is,  at  least,  a 
very  plausible  explanation.  He  holds  that  two  populations, 
perhaps  two  races,  Avere  placed  in  juxtaposition  in  the 
countries  in  question  during  the  quaternary  period.  There 
nuist  have  existed  between  them  one  of  those  many  instances 
of,  we  may  say,  instinctive  hatred  similar  to  that  wiiich  pre- 
vails between  the  Red-Skins  and  the  Esquimaux.  Encircled 
on  the  north  and  the  east  by  their  enemies,  who  occupied 
Hainault,  the  aborigines  of  the  Lesse  could  only  extend 
towards  the  south,  and,  through  the  Ardennes,  communicate 
with  the  basins  of  the  Seine  and  the  Loire. 

But  did  they  themselves  undertake  the  long  and  difficult 
journeys,  by  which  alone  they  could  procure  the  shells  which 
they  used  for  ornaments,  and  the  immense  quantity  of  flint 
which  they  worked  in  their  caverns  ?  We  do  not  hesitate  to 
assert  with  M.  Dupont  that  nothing  is  less  probable.  Every- 
thing, on  the  contrar}',  proves  that  they  obtained  their  supplies 
Ity  means  of  a  veritable  commerce,  organised  in  a  regular 
manner  and  upon  a  large  scale ;  whether  by  the  existence  of 
populations  devoted  to  this  form  of  industry,  of  which  there 


344  TJic  TTiiman  Species. 

are  several  examples  known  to  us  in  the  present  day  ;  or  by 
the  shells  and  flints  passincj  from  hand  to  hand  through  suc- 
cessive exchanges,  and  reaching  at  length  the  banks  of  the 
Lesse.  We  cannot  explain  in  any  other  way  the  abundance 
of  foreign  flints  at  Chaleux,  Furfooz,  etc.,  the  prodigality  with 
which  they  were  used,  and  the  evident  carelessness  displayed 
in  the  preservation  of  tools  which  had  been  manufactured 
from  them. 

VI II.  In  direct  opposition  to  the  men  of  Cro-Magnon, 
those  of  Furfooz  appear  to  have  been  eminently  pacific.  M. 
Dupont  has  not  discovered  cither  in  their  grottoes  or  burial- 
places  any  warlike  arms,  and  he  api)lies  to  them  Ross's  re- 
marks upon  the  Esquimau.K  of  Baffin's  Bay,  who  did  not 
undci^stand  what  was  nieant  by  war. 

In  the  sepulchral  grotto  of  Le  Frontal,  where  the  tribe  of 
Les  Nutons  buried  their  dead,  a  ninnber  of  objects  have  been 
found,  as  at  ( "ro-Magnon,  ])roving  the  existence  of  a  belief  in 
anotiier  life.  They  consisted  of  a  nundier  of  perforated  shells, 
oiuaments  in  spar,  flat  pieces  of  sandstone  traced  with  sketches, 
the  va.sc  which  we  have  mentioned  above,  and  some  selected 
Hint  imj)lements.  All  these  objects  arc,  moreover,  of  the 
same  nature  as  those  in  tiie  Trou  des  Nutons.  It  is  clear 
that  they  had  been  laid  in  the  .sepuUhral  vault  under  the 
imprcs-sion  that  they  would  .serve  to  supjily  the  wants  of  the 
deceased  in  tlie  new  exisU'iice  wliicli  was  opening  before 
them. 

Another  fact,  upon  which  .M.  hnpont  lias  with  JMsli(je  in- 
flisttid,  adds  to  the  probability  arising  from  various  considera- 
tioriK,  of  our  being  right  in  attributing  to  these  (juaternary 
men  a  kind  of  religion  more  or  less  analogous  to  Feti.shism. 
In  tlnr  Trou  d(;  Chaleux,  a  majnnioth's  ulna  was  j)lace«l  l>y 
the  side  of  a  health  upon  a  slab  of  sandstone.  Now  the 
mammoth  no  longer  existed  in  I'.tlgium  at  the  clo.se  of  the 
age  of  the  reinih-rr,  ami  this  bone  must  have  been  found  in 
the  alluvium  of  the  preceding  age.  It  had  donbtless  been 
tliC  cau«c  of  an  ciTor  which  may  bo  observed  even  at  the; 
prcHcnt  day,  and  had   been  looked  upnii  .is  having  belonged 


Races  of  Furfooz.  345 

to  a  giant.  Tlic  place  of  lionour  wliicli  was  allotted  to  it  in 
the  dwelling  of  the  troglodytes  seems  to  intimate  that  it  had 
hecome  an  ohject  of  veneration. 

IX.  Very  few  remains  of  the  two  races  of  Furfooz  and 
that  of  Grenclle,  have  been  discovered  in  other  quaternary 
dei)osits  than  those  which  have  just  been  mentioned.  The 
former  are,  however,  represented  in  the  basins  of  the  Somme 
and  the  Aude  ;  the  latter  has  been  met  with  at  two  or  three 
]>uints  in  the  basin  of  the  Seine.  We  have  seen  that  it 
existed  at  Solutre,  and  the  skull  of  Nagy-Sap  in  Hungary 
must  probably  be  referred  to  it.  These  facts  are  sufficient 
to  show  that  since  the  glacial  epoch  the  races  in  question 
have  occupied  an  extensive  area. 

In  the  neolithic  age,  we  find  the  mcsaticephali  of  Furfooz 
extending  from  the  Var  and  Herault  to  Gibraltar ;  the  sub- 
l)rachycephali  are  represented  from  Verdun  to  Boulogne-sur- 
mer,  and  to  Camp-Long  from  Saint-Cesaire  ;  they  intermingled 
with  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Cabe^o  d'Arruda  in  Portugal 

Tiie  brachycephalic  race  of  Clrt-nelle,  has,  however,  left  the 
most  distinct  traces.  It  has  been  di.scovercd  in  France  in 
several  dolmens,  and  in  the  Round  Barrows  in  England.  In 
Denmark  it  constitutes  the  brachyce]>halic  type  of  Kschricht, 
Miul  in  Sweden  forms  a  dozen  of  the  total  niunl>er,of  the 
-kulls  found  in  ilolmens  by  Retzius  and  his  successors. 

Tiie  intervention  of  thest*  different  races  in  the  formation 
of  existing  races  is  erpially  evident.  The  extict  demonstra- 
tion of  the  fact  i.s,  however,  often  difficult.  The  crossing 
whieh  took  jtlace  between  groups  placed  in  such  elose  contact 
with  eaih  otiar,  more  or  less  confu.sed  the  ty|K's.  Other 
brachycephalic  types,  amongst  others  the  Celtic  race,  such  as 
it  h.'Ui  been  described  by  M.  Rn)ca,  came  to  add  to  the  con- 
tusion. Neverthele.ss,  when  visiting  the  valley  of  the  Ije.s.se, 
several  members  of  the  Congress  of  prehistoric  Anthropology 
recognised  skidls  and  faces  as  bearing  in  the  clearest  manner, 
the  distinctive  marks  of  the  local  fos.siI  races,  and  these  traces 
are  still  more  frequent  in  the  rural  population  which  supplies 
the  markets  of  Antwerp. 


346  The  I  III  man  Species. 

It  is  the  nice  of  Grenelle,  again,  which  reappears  most 
pcrsistentiv  in  living  poi'uhitions.  Tlic  nmnerous  Parisian 
skulls  in  tlie  Paris  Museum  present  several  examples  of  this 
fact.  The  type  is,  liowever,  very  rarely  fpund  pure,  a  fact, 
■which  is  prubahly  the  result  of  two  causes.  On  the  one 
hand,  the  new  conditions  of  existence  impo.sed  upon  the 
quaternary  races  by  change  of  climate,  must  have  caused  an 
alteration  in  some  of  their  characteristics.  On  the  other 
liand,  fresh  element.s,  differing  but  slightly  from  the  fossil 
element,  have  been  blended  >vith  it.  If  the  skulls  of  Crenelle 
are  compared,  as  they  have  been  by  M.  Hamy,  with  Lapp 
skulls,  we  lind  that  from  the  extent  of  the  horizontal  arc, 
from  the  length  of  the  antero-posterior  and  transverse 
diameters,  and  from  the  cephalic  indices,  the  former  must 
be  placed  almost  exactly  half-way  between  the  two  great 
known  orders  of  Lajip  skulls.  We  observe  indeed,  certain 
diffLTcnces  between  them.  For  example,  the  cranial  vault 
is  more  flattened  in  the  Lapp  than  in  the  man  of  Grenelle  ; 
but,  on  the  whole,  the  analogies  are  far  greater  in  nund.er 
than  the  differences, 

'J'jje  elder  lletzius,  Sven  Nikson,  Esehricht,  and  others, had 
already  recognised,  by  means  of  their  investigations  of  the 
ancient  binials  of  their  country,  the  great  extension  of  an 
ancient  brachycephalic  race,  which  they  identified  with  the  true 
Lapps.  M.  Schaafhausen,  at  the  la.st  Stockholm  Congress, 
brought  forward  another  example  in  support  of  this  opinion. 

After  considering  thes(!  facts,  M.  Jlaniy  and  1  have  been 
led  to  admit  a  Lapp-Uke  t'/pe,  to  which,  with  the  race  of 
(Jrenelle,  u  great  number  of  ])()pulations  scattered  through 
time,  and  extending  over  nearly  the  whole  of  Europe,  may 
bo  referreil.  in  the  Dauphinc  Alps  partictdarly,  this  type  is 
represented  in  an  almost  pure  state.  A  curious  collection  of 
Hkullx  in  the  possession  of  M.  Hotil  leaves  no  room  for  (louV)t 
on  this  point  We  have  then  confirmed,  while  giving  it 
greater  precision  and  tracing  it  to  an  earlier  period,  one  of 
those  general  viewH,  for  which  anthropology  owes  so  much  to 
the  Scandinavian  savants. 


Lapp-like   Type.  347 

X.  Tims,  the  races  of  Furfooz  and  that  of  Crenelle,  the 
last  to  appear  in  the  quaternary  epoch,  came  in  contact 
diirin*'-  the  glacial  ages  with  the  clulichocoi)halic  races  which 
had  preceded  them.  In  certain  respects  they  have  become 
amalgamated  with  them ;  in  others,  they  have  preserved 
their  autonomy  ;  and  they  have  shared  the  same  Aite.     They 

ilso  experienced  that  change  of  soil  and  climate,  which  we 
iiavc  seen  causing  such  trouble  to  the  rising  societies  of  the 
( 'ro-Magnon  race  ;  they  also  witnessed  a  gradual  change  in 
the  conditions  of  existence;  and  the  results  of  these  changes 
iiave  atlectcd  them  in  the  manner  which  we  have  already 
pointed  out. 

A  certain  number  of  tribes  spread  northwards,  following 
the  reindeer  and  other  animal  species  which  they  had  been 
accustomed  to  regard  as  necessary  to  their  existence  ;  they 
emigrated  in  latitude.  Others  from  the  same  motive  emi- 
grated in  altitude,  accompanying  the  chamois  and  bouquetin 
into  the  mountain  chains,  which  had  been  liberated  by  the 
melting  of  glaciers.  Others,  again,  remained  stationary. 
The  two  first  groups  were  free  for  a  much  longer  time  from 
•  the  influence  of  ethnical  mixture.  The  tribes  composing  the 
third  soon  found  themselves  in  the  presence  of  brachycephalic 
and  dolichocephalic  immigrants  of  the  polished  stone  period, 
and  were  easily  subjugated  and  absorbed  by  them. 

XI.  On  their  arrival  in  Europe,  the  men  of  the  polished 
stone  period  did  not  meet  only  with  those  races  whieh  we 
have  been  discussing.  Tliey  came  in  contact  with  all  the 
(juaternary  races.  This  is  proved  by  many  of  the  facts 
already  mentioned  ;  ami  is  jtroved  merely  by  the  magnifi- 
cent collection  of  skulls  and  skeletons  collected  by  M.  de 
IJaye  from  the  sepulchral  grottoes  of  the  Marne.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Canstadt  typo,  all  tho.se  which  we 
have  just  described  seem  to  have  met  together  in  this 
remarkable  locality.  Even  that  of  La  Truchcre  is  repre- 
senteil  by  a  head  almost  as  strongly  characterised  a.s  that  of 
the  Se'ille.  The  foundation  of  this  neolithic  population  still 
lieloiiged,  however,  to  a  newly  arrived  type.      It    i-;  scarcely 


348  The  Human  Species. 

necessary  to  a<^ld  that,  whether  old  or  recent,  all  these  races 
have  interminixicd,  and  that  the  crossing  is  betrayed  some- 
times by  the  fusion,  and  sometimes  by  tlic  juxta-position,  of 
characteristics. 

Either  by  infiltration  or  conquest,  new  races  mingled  with 
the  preceding,  before  even  the  arrival  of  the  Aryans.  The 
latter  spread  to  the  western  extremities  of  the  continent, 
leaviijf  extensive  recrions  on  the  north  and  the  south,  where 
their  predecessors  continued  to  exist.  Then  followed  hi.storic 
invasions.  It  is  from  the  mixture  of  all  the.se  elements 
brought  together  by  war,  and  fused  by  the  experiences  of 
peace,  tiiat  our  European  societies  have  been  formed. 

XII.  Man  has  been  the  sole  essential  agent  in  the  forma- 
tion of  fresh  ethnical  groupings.  From  the  earliest  times  of 
the  polished  stone  perioil,  land  and  climate  have  remained 
unaltered  in  our  western  world.  European  man  has  then 
been  at  liberty  to  obey  the  laws  of  his  evolution,  to  found, 
modify,  or  destroy  his  a-ssociations  and  his  societies,  to 
traverse  the  ages  of  bronze  and  iron  as  well  as  historic  times, 
without  having  to  battle  with  those  invincible  forces,  which 
])erhaps  arrested  the  development  of  the  hunters. of  Cro-  ' 
Magnon. 

In  what  degree  does  the  anthropological  p;ust  of  the  rest 
of  the  worhl  resemble  that  of  Europe  ?  Science  will  some 
day,  un<loubtedly,  answer  this  question,  but  we  could  now 
only  form  conjectures.  It  is  wi.scr  to  abstain,  content  with 
having  deciphered  in  less  than  half  a  century,  almost  a  whole 
chapter  of  that  prehistoric  and  iiaheontological  history  of 
nia!!,  the  existence  of  which  was  not  even  suspected  by  our 
fathers. 


LOOK  IX. 

PRESENT  HUMAN  RACES.— PHYSICAL  CHARACTERS. 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 

GENEFIAL   OBSERVATIONS. — EXTERNAL   CHARACTERS. 

I,  I  CONSIDERED  tluit  I  ouijlit  to  give  a  somewhat  (k-tailcJ 
account  of  our  knowledge  of  fossil  human  races.  The  interest 
and  novelty  of  the  subject  induced  me  to  do  so,  and  its 
moderate  extent  rendered  it  possible.  But  I  cannot  treat 
the  history  of  present  races  in  the  same  manner.  If  I  wished 
to  study  them  singly,  I  could  scarcely  devote  more  than  a 
few  lines  to  each.  Even  if  I  grouped  them  into  families,  I 
should  only  be  able  to  give  an  incomplete  and  vague  account 
of  them,  uidess  I  went  much  beyond  the  limits  of  this  work. 

It  seemed  to  me  then  preferable  to  adopt  tlie  practice  of 
l)otanists  and  zoologist.s,  who  always  begin  with  a  general 
account  of  the  nature  and  s'gniticance  of  the  characters  of 
the  group  which  they  wish  to  discuss.  These  notions,  when 
atlVcting  the  whole  gioup,  arc  moreover  always  necessary. 
Thev  alone  allow  us  to  gnisp  and  comprehend  certain  geneml 
results.  They  become  still  more  indispensiible,  when  races 
•  lerived  from  one  and  the  same  species  are  under  discus.sion, 
because  they  bring  forward  and  render  evident  the  unity  of 
.specific  origin  of  these  races,  just  as  much  as  ilirect  proofs. 

II.  If  we  were  familiar  with  primitive  man,  we  should 
regaril  a-s  characterising  races,  everything  whieh  separates 
thi-m  from  this  type.     From  want  of  this  natural   term  of 


350  The  Human  Species. 

comparison,  wc  have  taken  the  Eurojyean  White  as  normal, 
and  compared  the  remaining  human  groups  with  him.  This 
leads  to  a  tendency,  which  must  be  pointed  out  at  once. 

Influenced  by  certain  habits  of  thought,  and  by  a  self-love 
of  race  which  is  easily  explained,  many  anthropologists  have 
thought  that  they  could  interpret  the  physical  ditlercnces 
which  distinguish  men  from  one  another,  and  consider  simple 
characteristic  features  as  marks  of  inferiority  or  superiority. 
Because  the  European  has  a  short  heul,  and  some  Negroes 
have  a  long  one,  they  have  wished  to  consider  the  latter  as  a 
mark  of  degradation.  The  remarks  which  were  made  upon 
this  subject,  with  so  much  justice,  by  Desmoulins  with  refer- 
ence to  the  Bosjesmans  were  forgotten.  Because  the  greater 
ntimber  of  civilizations  have  risen  among  dulichoceplialic 
nations,  a  head  elongated  from  before  backwards  has  been 
regarded  as  a  superior  form.  It  was  forgDtten  that  the 
Negroes  and  the  Esquiinau.x  are  generally  dulichocephali  t»f 
the  most  pronounceil  typo,  and  that  European  brachyccphali 
are  in  everyca.se  the  equals  of  their  dolichocephalic  brethren. 

AH  analogous  interpretations  are  absohitcly  arbitrary.  In 
fact,  superiority  between  hiunan  groui)s  dt^pends  es.sentially 
upon  intellectual  and  social  development ;  it  passes  from  one 
to  another.  The  Chinese  and  Egyptians  were  already  civi- 
lized, when  all  P^uropeans  were  true  savages.  If  the  latter 
had  judged  our  ancestors  as  we  too  frequently  judge  foreign 
races,  they  would  have  found  many  signs  of  inferiority  in 
them,  commencing  with  the  white  skin  of  which  we  are  so 
proud,  and  which  they  would  have  been  able  to  regard  as 
betraying  an  irremediable  degeneration. 

Is  the  fundamental  superiority  of  one  race  really  betrayed 
outwanlly  by  some  material  sign  ?  We  arc  still  in  ignorance 
up^)n  this  j)oint.  But  when  we  examine  it  more  closely,  we 
are  1(<1  to  think  that  it  is  not  so.  In  expressing  myself  thus, 
I  know  that  I  am  separating  myself  from  the  opinions  which 
un;  geiH-rally  admitted,  and  am  at  variance  with  men  whoso 
works  I  value  most  highly.  But  1  hope  to  give  decisive 
proofs  in  my  favour  further  on. 


General  Chai'actcrs.  351 

Differences  of  every  kind  nevertheless  exist  between  one 
lumian  group  and  another.  These  must  be  taken  for  what 
tlioy  art',  for  cJuiracters  of  race,  for  ethnical  characters.  It  is 
I  lie  duty  of  the  anthropologist  especially  to  recognise  these 
differences,  to  make  use  of  them  for  defining  the  groups,  then 
to  connect  or  separate,  according  to  their  affinities,  the  races 
thus  characterised.  In  other  terms,  his  work  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  botanist  or  geologist  describing  and  classifying 
plants  and  animals. 

Men  of  an  impatient  or  venturous  disposition  will  perhaps 
reproach  me  with  making  anthropology  too  descri^jtive.  I 
.shall  only  make  a  partial  defence  against  tlie  accu.-ation. 
Provided  that  the  description  embraces  the  entire  being,  it 
enables  us  to  become  acquainted  with  it.  If  we  take  our  stand 
on  this  point  of  view,  we  remain  on  the  ground  of  positive 
knowledge,  and  run  less  risk  of  losing  ourselves  in  liypotheses. 

I  still  consider  it  the  right  and  almost  the  duty  of  the 
anthropologist,  to  investigate  the  causes  which  may  have 
given  rise  to  the  appearance  of  the  features  which  characterise 
races.  The  study  of  the  actions  of  the  condilions  of  life 
sometimes  gives  valuable  indications  on  this  subject.  The 
evolution  of  the  human  being  from  his  appearance  in  the 
embryonic  state  to  the  adult  state,  especially  furnishes  facts 
of  great  interest.  A  simple  arreat,  a  slight  excess  in  the 
evolutive  phenomena,  are,  it  appears  to  me,  the  causes  of  the 
principal  differences  which  separate  races,  and  particularly 
the  two  extremes,  the  Negro  and  the  White. 

I  know  full  well  that  a  wish  has  been  ftlt  to  go  further 
back.  Under  the  more  or  less  perceptible  influence  of  trans- 
mutationist  doctrines,  terms  of  comparison  in  the  estimation 
of  these  ditTeronces  have  too  often  been  sought  for  among 
animals,  and  especially  among  apes.  Eminent  men,  without 
even  adopting  these  doctrines,  frequently  use  the  expres- 
sions, siniinn  cJiaracter,  animal  character.  Why  forget  the 
embryo  or  the  human  fojtus  ?  Why  not  remember  even  the 
infant  ?  Question  their  history.  It  furnishes  all  the  elements 
of  a  human  evolution  thcoi^,  certainly  much  more  precise 
16 


352  The  Human  Species. 

and  true  than  the  simian  Iheorj/.  This  is  again  a  result 
■which  will  bo  made  clear,  I  hope,  by  the  facts  which  I  shall 
have  to  mention. 

But  whether  or  not  I  may  be  able  to  explain  the  appear- 
ance of  the  features  which  distinjj^uish  races  from  each  other, 
and  whatever  origin  may  be  attributed  to  them,  I  shall  only 
take  the  word  character  in  the  sense  which  is  given  to  it  in 
botnny  and  zoology. 

III.  An  animal  species  is  not  characterised  solely  by  the 
peculiarities  manifested  by  its  physical  organism.  No  history 
of  bees  or  ants  omits  to  speak  of  their  instincts,  or  to  show 
how  these  differ  in  different  species.  With  much  stronger 
reason  ought  we  to  point  out  in  the  history  of  human  races 
the  characteristic  points  in  their  intellectual,  moral,  and 
religious  manifestations.  Of  course,  when  approaching  this 
order  of  facts,  the  anthropologist  ought  none  the  less  to 
remain  exclusively  a  naturalist. 

This  very  simple  consideration  is  sufficient  to  determine 
the  relative  value  which  ought  to  be  attributed  in  anthropol- 
ogy to  characters  of  different  orders.  Here,  as  in  botany 
and  in  zoology,  the  first  place  ought  to  be  given  to  the  most 
persistent  characters.  Now,  a  man,  tribe,  or  an  entire  popu- 
lation can  in  a  certain  number  of  years  change  its  social 
state,  its  language,  religion,  etc.  They  do  not  on  that  account 
modify  their  external  or  anatomical  physical  characters.  It 
is  therefore  to  the  latter  that  the  anthropologist  will  attach 
most  importance,  contrary  to  what  the  linguist,  the  philo- 
sopher, or  the  theologian  would  certainly  do. 

Nevertheless  we  shall  see  that,  in  some  very  rare  cuses, 
the  linguistic  characters  jjreponderatc^  over  the  physical 
characters,  in  the  sense  that  they  fmnish  more  striking 
indications  on  the  stibject  of  certain  ethnical  affinities. 
Considered  from  a  jjhysical  point  of  view,  man  exhiijits 
characters  wliich  may  be  divided  into  four  distinct  categories, 
namely;  external  characters,  anatomical  charactei"s,  physio- 
logical characters,  and  path<jlogical  eharactera. 

IV.  KXTERNAL  CHARACTERS. — llci(jht.  All  breeders  regard 


Exicrna  I  Clia  ractcrs — Height.  353 

lieight  as  characteristic  of  race  among  animals.  It  is  also 
one  of  the  traits  which  arc  most  striking  in  man.  This 
character  sometimes  shows  that  it  is  very  evidently  de- 
pendent upon  the  conditions  of  existence.  Sheltering  and 
feeding  somewhat  carefully  the  marcs  of  La  Camargne,  has 
been  sufficient  to  raise  the  height  of  this  excellent  breed  of 
horses.  With  man,  M.  Durand  (de  Gros),  confirming  an 
observation  already  due  to  Ed.  Lartot,  has  shown  that,  in 
the  Aveyron,  the  populations  of  the  limestone  cantons  are 
sensibly  taller  than  thoso  of  the  granite  or  schistose  cantons, 
lie  agreed  with  the  statement  of  Dr.  Albespy,  that  liming 
lands  in  the  non-calcareous  portions  of  this  district  has 
raised  the  height  by  two,  three  or  even  four  centimetres 
(78,  117,  lo7  inch)  on  the  lands  where  the  practice  has 
existed  for  the  longest  time. 

But  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  indisputable,  that  races  of  very 
(liffercnt  height  live  side  by  side,  without  its  being  possible 
hitherto  to  point  out  the  cause  of  this  diversity.  The 
dwarfed  Negroes,  the  Akkas  and  Obongos,  seem  to  be  placed 
under  conditions  precisely  similar  to  those  under  which  much 
taller  ueighbuurinfj  tribes  live. 

I  have  given  above  103  statures  of  human  races.  I  have 
insisted  with  sufficient  strength  upon  the  consequences  which 
follow  from  them  ;  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  gradation 
and  intercrossing  of  characters.  But  we  can  extract  from  these 
numbcre  .some  other  results  which  are  not  less  interesting. 

The  general  mean  given  by  these  numbers  will  be  l"*  63.5 
(.')ft  4  37  inch).  I  regard  it  as  a  liitle  too  great,  the 
measures  being  wrong  rather  for  the  short  races,  than  for  the 
tall.  Nevertheless  it  cannot  be  very  far  from  the  truth,  and 
may  be  accepted  provisionally. 

It  is  .seen  from  the  table  that  the  Roumanians  and  the 
Magyars  represent,  from  this  point  of  view,  exactly  the  mean 
stature. 

The  oscillations  of  the  mean  statures  above  and  below 
this  general  mean,  extend  in  the  ca.se  of  the  Patagonians 
to  -f  0"Ho  (4o3  inch),  and  in  the  case  of  the  Bosjesmans 


354  T^^c  Human  Species. 

to  —  0"'26o  (1()"43  iucli).  The  individual  oscillations  are  + 
0'"  295  (irTl  inch)  for  the  inhabitants  of  Tongatabou,  and 
—  0"-41).3  (1ft  7  49  inch)  or  —  0'"(j35  (2ft  1  inch)  for  the 
Bosjosmans. 

We  see  from  the  table  that  the  oscillations  below  the  general 
mean,  are  less  numerous  than  those  above  it.  This  result 
may  be  connected  with  the  fact  which  I  have  just  pointed  out. 
Nevertheless  it  appears  to  me  probable  that  the  number  of 
races  above  the  mean  stature,  is  greater  than  those  below 
it.  The  difference  in  number  is  compensated  for  by  the 
more  than  double  extent  of  the  oscillations  below  the  mean. 

Between  the  highest  mean  observed  among  the  Southern 
Patagonians,  and  the  lowest  mean  among  the  Bosjesmans,  we 
find  a  difterence  of  O'"'5o4  (1ft  98  inch).  The  difference 
between  individuals  will  be  0'»-930  (:3ft  OG  inch).  But  I 
think  that  it  ought  to  be  reduced  to  0'"-790  (2ft  71  inch), 
adopting  as  a  mean  the  height  1"''14  (3ft  888  inch)  given 
by  Barrow  as  the  height  of  a  Bosjesman  woman  who  had 
had  several  children.  We  are  thus  certain  that  we  are  not 
taking  a  case  of  tcratological  dwarfishness  as  a  possible 
normal  state. 

Travellers  have  not  often  measured  separately  the  height 
of  men  and  women.  Uniting  the  facts  of  this  nature  which 
I  have  been  able  to  collect,  we  find  0'"141  (.V57  inch)  as  the 
mean  ditference  between  the  heights  of  the  sexes,  and  0973 
jis  the  mean  ratio,  the  woman  being  everywhere  shorter  than 
the  man.  Among  the  Lapps,  according  to  Capel  Brooke  and 
Campbell,  the  mean  difference  is  as  high  as  0'"278  (10*94 
inches) ;  in  Austria,  it  is  as  low  as  0""{)37  (1  45  inch)  according 
to  Lihar/.ik. 

V.  I*ro]H)rtion  of  the  body  (f^d  of  the  limhs.  In  all  the 
races  of  our  domestic  animals,  the  relative  tlevcloj)inont  of 
the  dilTerent  parts  of  the  body,  the  2>'''V'c»r/<ojjs,  have  a 
char.u-teri.slic  value,  which  is  c<|ual  and  frecjuently  superior 
to  that  of  height.  No  one  would  think  of  separating  the 
greyhound  from  tho  harrier.  Jt  ought  to  be  exactly  tho 
same  with  man.     \\  iili  the  animal,  races  are  formed  by  a 


External  Characters — Proportions.  355 

selection  more  or  less  open,  and  undertaken  for  a  fixed 
purpose.  The  proportions  of  the  ditferent  parts  of  tlie  body 
thus  accpiire  a  fixity,  whieh  cannot  be  found  in  human  races 
on  account  of  the  absence  of  selection. 

This  variability  is  found  even  in  the  simplest  relations, 
and  in  those  which  migiit  be  considered  fundamental.  Such 
is  the  relation  of  the  height  of  the  head  to  the  total  height. 
Gerdy,  who  has  taken  up  this  question  in  a  special  manner, 
has  found  that  the  height  of  Frenchmen  is  rarely  beyond 
7i  heads,  most  frequently  a  little  more  than  8  heads,  and 
sometimes  9,  The  artistic  ideal  is  no  more  fixed  than  the 
reality,  in  spite  of  the  mathematical  rules  laid  down,  from 
Vitruvius  to  Liharzik  and  Silberman.  The  table  drawn  up 
by  Audran  shows  the  variation  from  7{v  heads  (the  Egyptian 
Termes)  to  7H  (the  Fiirnese  Hercules).  The  dit^'erence 
between  these  two  extremes  is  exactly  half  a  head.  Painters 
have  taken  still  more  liberty.  Raphael  has  only  given  a 
lieight  of  G  heads  to  some  of  his  figures,  and  Micliael  Angelo 
has  given  them  8  or  more. 

The  Pythian  Apollo  {jY\  heads),  the  Laocoon  (7;t)>  ^'"^ 
nevertheless  che/n-d'ceuvrc,  and  we  rightly  bestow  an  equal 
amount  of  admiration  upon  the  two  Italian  masters.  The 
reason  is  just  the  same  as  with  the  rest  of  organised  beings  : 
man's  organism  is  not  subject  to  absolute  laws,  nor  to  a  rigor- 
ously fixed  development. 

Doubtless  there  have  been  noticed  among  some  human 
races  differences  of  proportion  generally  sufficiently  marked 
to  serve  as  characters.  But  it  just  as  often  happens  that 
with  some  individuals  the  order  of  these  ditferences  is  in- 
verted.    It  is  another  example  of  intercrossing. 

Thus  the  African  Negro  has  generally  the  upper  limb, 
from  the  shoulder  to  the  wrist,  relatively  longer  than  the 
I'luropean  White,  and  we  shall  return  to  this  point  further 
on.  Nevertheless,  from  the  measures  of  Qudtelet,  it  follows 
that  a  Negro,  well  known  in  the  studio.s,  where  he  acted  as  a 
model,  had  much  shorter  arras  than  the  soldiers,  and  than  a 
Belgian  model,  who  were  taken  as  terms  of  comparison. 


35^  The  llntnan  Species. 

^lorcovcr,  the  numbers  found  by  Quetelct  place  the  indi- 
viduals, upon  whom  his  observations  were  made,  in  the  follow- 
ing order  : —  1st,  mean  of  ten  Belgian  soldiers  ;  2nd,  an 
Ojibbcway  chief;  8rd,  a  Belgian  model,  and  a  Zulu  Kaffir; 
4th,  an  Amaponda  Kaffir ;  5th,  the  Negi'o  model ;  6th, 
three  young  Ojibbeways;  7th,  Cantfield,  the  Hercules  of 
the  United  States.  Here  intercrossing  again  appears  in  a 
well  marked  manner,  and  it  is  in  the  White  race  that  the 
Brussels  savant  has  found  the  two  extremes. 

In  the  general  characteristic  of  negro  races,  we  often  find 
quoted  the  slight  development  and  the  relatively  high  posi- 
tion of  the  calf  of  the  leg.  I  have  no  definite  information 
upon  the  latter  of  these  characters.  As  fur  the  former,  it 
has  been  represented  to  be  too  general.  Two  Blacks,  the 
Amaponda  Kaffir,  and  the  Negro  model  in  the  tables  of 
Qudtelet,  present  the  maxinmm  0"'"41()  (1G14  inches),  and 
the  minimum  0'"328  (12  92  inches)  of  development  of  this 
part.  They  are  separated  from  each  other  by  the  Belgians, 
the  Ojibbeways,  and  Cantfield. 

Finally,  the  vieans  taken  for  the  different  parts  of  the 
body  will  doubtle.ss  give  results  useful  for  the  distinction 
of  race-s.  But  still,  account  will  have  to  be  taken  of  many 
of  the  conditions.  All  hunting  peoples,  including  the  Aus- 
tralians, according  to  travellers  who  have  been  among  them. 
Could  furnish  moilels  for  the  sculptor,  and  are  generally  re- 
niarkalile  for  the  symmetry  and  beauty  of  their  proportions. 
In  this  respect  civilized  populations,  especially  those  of  our 
great  towns,  present  a  deplorable  inferiority.  Is  our  funda- 
mental type  degraded  in  this  respect  ?  Certainly  not.  But 
civilization  itself,  by  the  facilities  of  existence  which  it  pro- 
cures, by  the  vices  which  it  induces,  by  the  weakly  indi- 
viduals which  it  preserves,  introduces  into  the  race  the 
elements  of  drgradation.  Here  again  appears,  in  all  its 
fulness,  the  inHuenco  of  the  conditions  of  life. 

VI.  Colovr'nuj.  With  all  anlhroj)ologists  I  recognise  the 
high  vahie  of  the  colour  of  the  skin  as  a  character.  Never- 
theless, its  importance  must  not  be  exaggerated.     We  now 


ILxtcrnal  Characters — Colouring.  357 

know  that  it  docs  not  result  from  the  existence  or  disappear- 
ance of  special  hiycrs.  Black  or  white,  the  skin  always  com- 
prises a  white  dcnnl^,  penetrated  by  many  capillaries,  and  an 
i'lndemxis,  more  or  less  transparent  and  colourless.  Between 
the  two  is  ]ilaced  the  raxicons  layer,  of  which  the  }>i'jment 
alone  in  realitv  v.iriis  iu  quantity  and  colour  according  to  the 
race. 

All  the  colours  presented  by  the  luunun  skin  iiave  two 
common  elements,  the  white  of  the  dermis  and  the  red  of 
the  blood.  Moreover,  each  has  its  own  proper  element,  re- 
sultinEf  from  the  colourings  of  the  pigment.  The  rays  re- 
flected from  these  different  tissues  combine  into  a  result- 
ant which  produces  the  different  tints  and  traverses  the 
epidermis.  This  latter  plays  the  part  of  roughened  glass. 
The  more  delicate  and  the  finer  it  is,  the  more  perceptible 
is  the  colour  of  the  subjacent  parts. 

This  arrangement  explains  why,  among  certain  coloured 
races,  for  example,  among  the  Sandwich  Islandei-s,  the 
upper  classes,  who  do  not  live  an  exposed  life,  often  ex- 
hibit the  colour  in  a  most  pronounced  form.  Among  them 
sun-hurninf/  ma.sks  the  colour  of  the  pigment,  as  it  masks 
with  us  the  colour  of  the  dermis  and  its  vessels. 

From  the  preceding,  we  can  also  understand  why  the 
White  alone  can  be  said  to  turn  pule  or  to  hlusli.  The 
reason  is,  that  in  him  the  pigment  allows  the  slightest 
differences  in  the  afflux  of  blood  to  the  dermis  to  be  per- 
ceived. With  the  Negro  as  with  us,  the  blood  has  its 
share  in  the  colouring,  the  tint  of  which  it  deepens  or 
modifies.  When  the  blood  is  wanting,  the  Negro  turns 
grey  from  the  blending  of  the  white  of  the  dermis  with 
the  black  of  the  pigment. 

It  is  well  known  that  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  colour- 
ing, human  races  can  be  divided  into  four  principal  groups  : 
white,  yellow,  black,  and  red  races.  But  we  must  guard 
against  attaching  an  absolute  sense  to  these  expressions. 
Every  grouping  of  races  founded  solely  on  colour  would 
break  clo.so  relations,  and  would  lead  to  comparisons  which 


2,s^  The  Htiman  Species. 

would  evidently  be  at  variance  v  itli  the  sum  of  the  remain- 
ing charactere,  Kevertheless,  this  systematic  point  of  view 
brings  to  light  some  interesting  general  foots. 

The  races  of  a  white  colour  present  sufficient  homogeneity. 
From  the  sum  of  their  characters,  they  belong  almost  ex- 
clusively to  the  type  which  borrows  its  name  from  this  kind 
of  colouring.  It  is,  moreover,  useless  to  insist  upon  the 
differences  of  tint  which  the  latter  exhibit,  from  the  Eng- 
lish or  German  woman  of  the  upper  classes  to  the  Portu- 
guese, and  especially  to  the  Arab.  Nevertheless,  in  the 
northern  regions  and  in  Central  Asia,  some  populations, 
the  Tchukchees  for  example,  ajipcar  to  unite  witli  a  white 
colour  certain  characters  which  connect  them  with  the 
yellow.s. 

In  the  purest  white,  the  epidermis  ca.sily  loses  its  trans- 
parency as  .soon  as  the  colour  deepens.  The  sub-cutaneous 
veins  can  tlion  only  be  recognised  by  their  swelling.  It  is 
only  with  individuals  who.sc  skin  is  very  fine  and  trans- 
parent, that  the  course  of  the  veins  is  marked  b}'  the  well- 
known  blui.sh  colour.  Whenever  this  trait  is  exhibited  by 
any  population  whatever,  it  may  with  certainty  be  connected 
with  the  white  type.  For  this  reason  I  have  not  hesitated  to 
place  among  the  Allophylians  some  of  the  most  savage  tribes 
of  the  north  western  shores  of  North  Amc  i  ica,  and  the  'JVhuk- 
chees,  of  whom  I  have  just  spoken. 

The  populations  with  a  black  skin  arc  far  from  being  as 
homogeneous  as  the  preceding.  All  black  men  are  not 
Negroes ;  there  are  sonie,  who,  from  the  sum  of  their  more 
important  characters,  are  closely  connecttil  with  the  white 
stock.  Such,  for  example,  are  the  I>icliaris  and  other 
negroid  populations,  on  the  borders  of  the  Red  Sea,  whose 
skin  is  much  blacker  than  that  of  some  negroes,  but  whoso 
hair  and  cliai actors  are  perfectly  Semitic. 

Among  Negroes  properly  so  called,  the  tints  vary,  perhaps, 
much  more  than  with  the  White.  Witlioiit  going  further 
than  Cairo,  individuals  niay  bo  seen,  who,  without  any 
traces  of  the  mixture  of  races,  arc  of  »  brown  colour  with 


External  Charactci's — Colouring.  359 

a  considerable  mixture  of  black.  The  Yulofs  are  of  a  bluish 
black,  resembling  the  wing  of  a  raven,  and  Livingstone 
speaks  of  some  tribes  on  the  Zambesi  who  are  the  colour 
of  caJ4.  au  lait.  But,  perhaps,  mixture  of  races  has  some 
action  in  this  extreme  modification  of  the  colour. 

Populations  with  a  yellow  skin  present  facts  analogous 
with  the  preceding,  but  nut  so  numerous  nor  so  striking. 
Perhaps  this  difference  is  only  due  to  the  difficulty  of 
recojjnisinsr  the  shades  of  the  fundamental  colour.  Never- 
theless,  a  more  or  less  pronounced  yellow  colour  equally 
characterises  the  great  Mongolian  stock,  and  the  Houzuu- 
ana  or  Bosjesman  race,  which  it  is  impossible  to  separate 
from  the  Negroes.  On  the  other  hand,  this  same  tint  is 
so  well  marked  among  tlie  mulattoes  that  they  are  often 
designated  by  the  name  of  ijdlows,  in  distinction  to  the 
Blivcks  and  the  Whites. 

Of  the  four  groups  into  which  the  colour  of  human  races 
may  be  divided,  the  least  characteristic  is  the  red.  It  has 
been  attempted  to  make  it  the  attribute  of  the  Americans. 
This  is  a  mistake.  On  the  one  hand,  in  America  the 
Peruvian,  Autisian,  Araucanian,  and  other  races  are  more  or 
less  deep  brown,  the  Brazilio-Guaranians  of  a  yellowish 
colour  slightly  tinted  with  red,  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
Formosa  a  tribe  has  been  found  as  red  as  the  Algonquins, 
and  more  or  less  copper  tints  are  met  with  among  (.'orean, 
African  populations,  etc. 

Moreover,  the  red  tint  appears  a^  the  sole  etTect  of  the 
crossing  between  races,  neither  of  which  possess  it.  Fitzroy 
informs  us  that  in  New  Zealand  it  frcMjuently  characterises 
the  half-breeds  of  English  and  Maories.  This  fact  also  ex- 
plains why  it  should  be  met  with  among  many  of  the 
populations  mentioned  above.  With  man  it  is  one  of 
those  facts  which  show  how  intercrossing  can  give  rise  to 
the  appearance  of  new  characters. 

Finally  we  see  that  the  colour  of  the  skin,  although 
furnishing  excellent  secondary  characters,  cannot  be  taken 
as  a   starting   jxiint    in    the   dassificafion    of   human    races 


360  The  Hujiian  Species. 

)iK>x  man,  as  well  as  for  plants,  we  ought  to  recall  the 
aphorism  of  Linnajus  :  '^ nimiuiniX  ne  crede  colori" 

The  same  may  be  said  still  more  emphatically  of  the  colour 
of  the  eyes.  Doubtless,  the  black  colour  is  generally  found 
among  coloured  races,  and  sky-blue  scarcely  exists  except 
among  fair  populations.  The  former  tint  appears  even  to  be 
constant  among  the  yellows  and  certain  alloj)hylian  Whites. 
But,  even  among  the  Negroes,  we  often  meet  with  brown 
eyes,  and  sometimes  with  grey  eyes. 

Just  as  with  the  colour  of  the  skin,  the  colour  of  the  eyes 
is  a  resultant  due  to  the  combination  of  the  tints  reflected  by 
the  different  layers  of  the  iris,  intensified  by  the  colour  of 
the  blood  and  seen  through  the  transparent  cornea.  Hence 
arises  the  difficulty  experienced  by  painters  in  rendering  the 
general  effect. 

VII.  The  shin  and  ils  principal  annexes.  The  skin, 
which  covers  the  entire  body,  is  a  real  covering  composed 
of  organs  which  are  anatomically  and  physiologically  dis- 
tinct. The  j)rincipal  one  is  the  cutaneous  on/an  or  skin 
properly  so  called,  to  which  are  annexed  the  organs 
jyroductive  of  villositles,  the  siulori parous  glands,  the 
cutaneous  glands,  and  some  others  which  do  not  concern 
us. 

In  extreme  cases,  the  surface  of  the  skin  is  sometimes 
dry  and  rough,  sometimes  supple  and  like  satin.  The  first 
variety  is  generally  met  with  among  Arctic  races,  the 
second  among  inhabitants  of  hot  countries,  as  the  Negroes 
and  Polynesians. 

The  two  facts  arc  easily  exj)lainod  by  the  sole  action  of 
the  temperature.  Cold  contracts  the  tissues,  drives  the 
blood  towards  the  interior,  or  checks  its  circulation  to- 
wards the  surface  of  the  body.  It  must  consequently 
diminish  the  functional  activity  of  the  skin  properly  so 
called,  and  partially  diminish  perspiration.  Heat,  on  the 
contrary,  r^-iusrs  a  fhiw  of  blood  to  the  surface  of  the 
])ody,  and  r<;n(krs  th(;  functions  of  the  skin,  and  espcciall}' 
the   perspiration,  more   active.     The  lattrr.   I»y   the  produc- 


External  Characters — Skin,  Pers/)iration.    36 1 

tion  of  a  constant  evaporation  on  the  surface  of  tlie  body, 
maintains  the  suppleness  of  the  epidermic  layer,  and  the 
general  freshness  whicli  causes  Negresses  to  be  sought  after 
in  harems. 

From  this  action  of  heat,  and  the  increased  activity  of  the 
cutaneous  organs  which  is  its  consequence,  other  results 
follow  which  explain  some  of  the  facts  noticed  by  travellers 
and  anthropologists. 

Pruuer  Bey  luxs  insisted  strongly  upon  the  thickness  of  the 
cutaneous  layers,  and  especially  upon  that  of  the  dermis  in 
the  Negro.  Is  not  this  thickness  the  natural  consequence  of 
the  How  of  nutritive  principles  brought  by  the  blood,  which  is 
incessantly  passing  to  the  surface  of  the  body  to  keep  up  the 
perspiration  ? 

It  has  long  ago  been  remarked  that  the  Negioes  and 
other  races  inhabiting  hot  countries  perspire  much  less 
than  the  inhabitants  of  temperate  climates.  This  is  ac- 
counted for  by  the  preceding  facts.  The  blood,  which  is 
constantly  brought  to  the  surface  and  into  the  cutaneous 
organs,  docs  not  flow  so  copiously  in  the  sudoriparous 
glands,  which  are  deeply  buried  beneath  the  adipose  tissue. 
Between  transpiration  and  perspiration,  in  consequence 
of  the  position  of  the  organs,  a  real  equilibrium  should 
e.xist. 

Probably,  one  of  the  difficulties  of  acclimatisation  arises 
from  the  fact  that  the  proportional  activity  of  these  two 
functions  has  to  be  changed  when  we  pa:ss  from  a  temper- 
ate to  a  tropical  climate,  or  vice  versa.  The  researches 
of  Krause  show  that  the  body  of  a  European  contains 
more  than  2,281,000  sudoriparous  glands.  Tl;e  total 
volume  of  all  these  small  organs  would  amount  to  about 
40  cubic  inches.  A  sudden  change  in  functions  could  not 
therefore  be  unimportant.  Moreover,  the  sebaceous  glands, 
which  are  smaller  but  more  numerous  than  the  sudoriparous, 
participate  in  this  change,  which  can  only  result  in  a  serious 
shock  to  the  organism. 

The  villosities  are  cither  very  rare  or  absolutely  wanting 


362  The  Human  Species. 

on  the  surface  of  the  boily  of  a  Negro,  except  i.ome  parts 
which  in  man  arc  always  covered  with  hair.  On  the  other 
hand,  tlie  glandular  cutaneous  covering  is  highly  developed 
in  his  case. 

Both  these  facts  may  also  be  referred  to  the  same  cause, 
and  are  explained  by  the  balancing  of  connected  organs. 
The  blood,  when  brought  to  the  surface  of  the  body,  aban- 
dons the  hulhs  of  the  hair  which  are  too  deeply  planted;  but, 
for  the  same  reason  it  flows  into  the  sebaceous  glands,  which 
are  situated  near  the  surface.  It  easily  follows  that  the 
former  suffer  atrophy,  and  the  latter  experience  an  excep- 
tional development. 

This  development  accounts  for  the  exaggerated  odour 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  Negro.  It  is  known  that  a  slave- 
ship  may  be  recognised  by  this  smell.  But  African  popula- 
tions are  not  the  only  ones  which  are  characterised  in  this 
manner.  Humboldt  informs  us  that  the  Peruvians  distinguish 
the  odour  of  a  native,  a  white,  and  of  a  negro,  calling  them 
posco,  i^ezunay  and  gra'io.  Amongst  oureelves,  every  individ- 
ual has  his  own  peculiiir  odour,  which  is  easily  detected  by 
the  deHcatc  .sense  of  smell  of  the  dog. 

V'lll.  Villoaiiics,  beard,  hair.  Villosities  in  man  repre- 
sent the  hair  of  the  mammalia;  but  whilst  the  latter  are 
always  covered,  with  tlic  exception  of  some  special  races, 
•  such  as  rhli'n.i  tares,  calongo  cattle,  etc.,  man  is  generally 
only  covered  to  any  notable  extent  upon  certain  places.  In 
the  African  Negro,  and  most  of  the  yolhnv  race.s,  it  only 
exists  upon  the  normal  parts  of  the  body.  Nevertheless  the 
practice  of  epil.'ition,  which  is  common  to  a  great  mimber  of 
coloured  pojjul.itions,  h:us  caused  the  frecpioncy  and  intensity 
of  this  character  to  be  exaggerated.  Eckewclder  represents 
Ilcd-Skin  warriors,  in  their  leisure  monjents,  as  occupied  in 
tearing  out  the  smrdh-st  hairs  with  ])incc'rs  espoci.illy  made 
fur  the  purpose. 

Wliite  races  an-  j^i mialiy  imni:  ur  lus.s  hairy,  and  this 
trait  has  long  l>een  known  to  be  developed  to  a  very  excep- 
tional degree  among  the  Aiiios.     Tlie  photographs  of  Colonel 


Extciual  Characters — Beard,  Hair.        363 

Marsliall  show  tliat  the  Todas  are  their  equal  in  this  respect. 
Ill  certain  individuals  among  the  latter  the  villosities  form  a 
real  fur,  especially  on  the  lower  limbs. 

Of  all  the  villosities  of  the  human  body,  those  which  cover 
the  face  and  cranium  have  justly  attracted  most  attention. 
All  races  have  hair ;  but  a  considerable  number  in  Asia, 
America,  and  Africa,  have  been  noticed  to  be  entirely  without 
beards.  PalKos,  Humboldt,  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  and 
Pruner  Bey,  have  contradicted  these  assertions,  and  shown 
that  the  absence  of  beards  is  entirely  due  to  careful  epila- 
tion. All  human  races  are  more  or  less  provided  with  a 
beard.  ^Nevertheless  great  difterences  are  known,  even 
among  races  belonging  to  the  same  fundamental  type. 
Certain  Melanesian  Nogioes  present  a  striking  contrast  in 
this  respect  to  their  African  brothers. 

The  hair  of  the  head  is  much  more  constant  in  respect  to 
quantity  than  that  of  the  beard.  Nevertheless  it  appears  to 
be  sensibly  thicker  among  some  arctic  races,  who  have 
moreover  a  more  abundant  down  than  races  in  temperate 
climates.  In  this  respect  there  is  perfect  agreement  with 
the  known  facts  among  animals. 

With  certain  Negro  races,  the  Bosjesmans  of  South  Africa, 
the  Mincopies  of  the  Andaman  Islands,  the  Papuans  of 
Melanesia,  and  some  African  tribes,  the  hair  forms  upon  the 
head  small  i.slands,  separated  by  spaces  which  are  perfectly 
smooth.  Hence  results  the  heads  of  hair  en  grains  de 
poivre  noticed  by  different  travelleiu  Amongst  most  African 
Negroes,  and  amongst  the  Yellows  an<l  the  Whites,  the 
distribution  of  the  hair,  on  the  contrary,  is  uniform. 

The  variation  of  the  colour  of  the  hair  is  well  known. 
Some  general  facts  may  nevertheless  be  collected  from  the 
midst  of  all  these  special  cases.  I  have  said  already  tliat  we 
find  isolated  cases  in  all  races  of  individuals  with  hair  of  a 
more  or  less  reddi.sh  colour.  Fair  hair  has  for  a  long  time 
been  regarded  as  the  appanage  of  a  small  number  of  Aryan 
groups.  Nevertheles.s,  according  to  Pruner  Bey,  we  also 
meet  with  it  sometimes  among  the  Asiatic  Semites,  and  we 


364  TJic  Human  Species. 

know  for  certain  that  tlicy  are  very  frequent  among  the 
Kabyles.  Facts  sucli  :is  Pierre  Martyr,  P.  Kes,  James,  etc., 
liave  noticed  among  the  Parians,  the  Lee-Panis,  the  Kiavas, 
etc.,  will  no  doubt  one  day  be  explained  by  migrations  and 
intercrossings.  It  seems  to  me,  for  instance,  almost  evident 
that  the  Scandinavians  must  have  introduced  their  fair  hair 
among  several  tribes  of  the  American  shore,  and  that  the 
facts  noticed  by  Pierre  INIartyr  are  one  of  the  proofs  of  their 
extension  beyond  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

There  is  also  something  characteristic  in  the  fonn  of  the 
hair  taken  as  a  whole.  Everyone  knows  the  falsely  called 
vjoolbj  head  of  the  Negro,  which  is  covered  with  very  short 
and  crisp  hair.  The  very  long  and  harsh  hair  of  yellow, 
American,  and  other  populations,  contrasts  in  a  striking 
manner  with  the  preceding.  That  of  the  white  races,  which 
is  frequently  curly,  almost  takes  the  mean  between  these 
two  extremes. 

This  general  a.spect  ordinarily  corresponds  with  the  dif- 
ferences of  structure  and  general  form  of  the  hair.  Brown 
has  already  proved  that  a  horizontal  section  of  the  hair 
varies  from  an  elongated  ellipse  with  the  Negro,  to  a  circle 
with  the  IledSkin,  and  that  the  hair  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  is  a 
mean  between  the  two.  Pruncr  Boy  has  resumed  this  study, 
and  (lesciibed  the  form  of  a  horizontal  section  of  the  hair  in 
.several  races  belonging  to  the  three  fundamental  types.  He 
ha-s  proved  that  the  elongativl  ellip.sc  characterises  Negro 
races  in  general,  a.s  well  as  the  ]it>ttentot-Bosjesman  ;  that 
the  oval  forms  belong  essentially  to  Aryan  popidations;  that 
more  or  less  regularly  circular  forms  charactori.so  yellow, 
American,  and  other  races,  and  that  in  this  respect  the 
allophylian  white  laces  (Ba.sque.s)  appear  to  resemble  the 
prfceding. 

Brown  and  rnincr  Bey  moreover  agree  in  the  statement 
that  a  mixture  (»f  forms  is  found  ujinn  iIm'  hc.id.s  of  half- 
brecdH.  Exactly  the  same  often  haj»p<  ns  in  the  rro.ssing  of 
the  merino  with  races  of  shoe))  with  a  coarse  wool. 

I   have  hitherto  only  sp«)kon   of  the  characters  furnished 


Extcnial  Characters — Cranium,   Face.       365 

l)y  the  beard  and  the  hair  when  grown  freely.  But  it  is 
well  known  that  the  love  of  adornment,  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  instincts  of  man,  endeavours  to  modify  nature 
in  tiiesc  two  directions.  This  results  in  characters,  which 
are  doubtless  artiHcial,  but  which  have  sometimes  a  real 
value.  This  side  of  the  question  has  often  been  attacked, 
and  M.  E.  Cortambert  has  made  it  the  object  of  a  work,  in 
which  he  has  given  a  summary  of  the  work  of  his  pre- 
decessoi*8  in  addition  to  his  own. 

IX.  Characters  of  the  cranium  and  of  (he  face.  From 
the  point  of  view  of  descriptive  anthropology  as  well  as 
from  an  anatomical  point  of  view,  the  head  is  composed 
essentially  of  two  regions,  the  cranium  and  the  face.  The 
former  is  covered  solely  by  the  hairy  skin  which  follows  all 
its  contours,  and  it  in  reality  therefore  only  presents  osteo- 
logical  characters.  The  general  form,  proportions,  etc.,  are 
almost  the  same  in  the  living  man  as  in  the  skeleton.  I 
will  therefore  go  into  greater  detail  upon  this  subject  when 
treating  of  the  latter.  Here  1  will  only  remark  that  the 
inequality  of  the  skin  and  of  some  subjacent  muscular  fibres 
necessitates  some  corrections  in  the  comparison  of  measure- 
ments taken  from  the  living  head  and  from  the  skull.  For 
example,  the  presence  of  the  temporal  mu.scles  increases 
to  a  sufficiently  sensible  extent  the  transverse  maximum 
diameter.  Consequently  the  ratio  of  the  latter  to  the 
anterio-posterior  diameter  becomes  raised.  This  ratio,  which 
constitutes  the  crplmllc  index,  is  one  of  the  charactei^s 
which  anthropologists  employ  most  frequently,  and  it  was 
important  to  determine  the  correction  to  be  made  in  case 
of  comparison.  Broca  ha.s  shown  that  it  is  two  units  when 
the  ratio  is  expressed  in  the  manner  which  I  shall  mention 
further  on. 

The  case  is  dilTerent  with  the  face.  Here  the  super- 
imposed soft  parts  play  a  part  of  which  the  importance  Ikis 
been  alternately  exaggerated  or  neglected.  William  Edwards 
considered  that  races  should  be  determined,  as  we  judge  of 
individuals,  solely  by  the  facial  characters.     Serrcs,  starting 


J 


66  The  Human  Species. 


from  the  fact  that  the  bony  framework  determines  the 
general  form  and  the  proportion  of  the  face,  required  that 
osteological  characters  only  should  be  taken  into  account. 
Both  were  too  exclusive. 

Doubtless  the  skeleton  is  important  in  the  most  super- 
ticial  characters  of  the  face.  But  the  muscles,  the  cellular 
and  adipose  tissue,  and  the  cartilages  are  much  more  deve- 
loped on  the  face  than  upon  the  cranium  ;  and  from  their 
greater  or  less  extension,  from  their  various  relations,  differ- 
ences of  feature  result  which  constitute  so  many  characters. 
Unfortunately  it  is  often  very  difficult  to  define  the  latter. 
The  most  detailed  descriptions  are  rarely  sufficient,  and 
the  most  exact  measurements  are  far  from  giving  an  idea 
of  certain  variations  of  the  human  figure.  For  example, 
they  cannot  make  the  difference  intelligible,  which  is  never- 
theless very  sensible  to  the  eye,  which  distinguishes  the 
nose  of  a  negro  of  Guinea  from  that  of  a  Nubian  negro. 

The  nose  is  neverthele.s8  one  of  the  features  of  the  face 
which  is  best  adapted  for  investigations  of  this  kind.  Its 
len<Tth  is  determined  by  the  point  of  attachment  of  the 
nasal  bones  to  the  frontal  bone  and  the  position  of  the 
nasal  spine  ;  its  breadth  at  the  ])ridgo  depends  upon  the 
anMc  formed  by  the  nasal  bones  ;  its  breailth  at  the  bai>e 
is  more  or  less  related  to  the  anterior  opening  of  the  nasal 
fo.ssjE.  But  the  form  and  development  of  the  cartilages,  as 
well  as  the  thickness  of  the  nostrils  upon  two  very  similar 
skulls,  can  modify  considerably  the  type  itself  of  this  organ  ; 
and  the  exterior  nasal  index  can  give  no  idea  of  these 
variations.  The  study  of  Topinard  upon  this  subject,  nevcr- 
theles.s,  po.sscsses  a  real  interest ;  but  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  characteri.sation  of  races,  the  researches  made  by 
Broca  upon  the  nasal  osteological  inde.x,  which  we  will 
discuHH  further  on,  has  a  much  more  important  value. 

The  characters  drawn  from  the  nose,  which  arc  observed 
tip(jn  tlic  living  body,  are  however  most  important.  Thi» 
firgun  is  more  or  less  pressed  in,  broad  and  flat  among 
almost  all   Ncotoch.  the  greater   part   of  the   Yellow  races. 


External  Characters — Face.  367 

and  certain  allopliyliati  Whites ;  it  is  on  tlu;  coutrary 
narrow  and  prominent  in  fair  wliito  races.  These  two 
general  types  moreover  present  variations  of  which  drawings 
only  can  give  any  idea. 

I  may  say  the  same  with  reference  to  the  mouth.  The 
thoii'^and  differences  of  form  and  dimensions  which  it  can 
exhihit,  from  the  negro  of  Guinea  with  his  enormous  and, 
as  it  were  tunn-d  up  lips,  to  certain  aryan  or  Semitic  Whites 
can  neither  be  measured  nor  described.  We  can  only  point 
out  the  general  characters  when  they  become  very  pro- 
nounced. It  may,  however,  be  remarked  that  the  thickness 
of  the  lips  is  very  marked  among  all  negroes,  in  consequence 
of  their  projection  in  front  of  the  ma.xillary  bones  and  the 
teeth. 

The  mouth  of  the  Negro  presents  another  character  which 
seems  to  me  to  have  been  generally  neglected,  and  which 
has  always  struck  me.  It  is  a  kind  of  clamminess  at  the 
outer  border  of  the  commissures,  and  which  seerns  to 
prevent  the  small  movements  of  the  corner  of  the  mouth 
which  play  such  an  important  part  in  the  physiognomy. 
The  dissections  of  M.  Hamy  have  explained  tiicsc  facts. 
They  have  shown  that  in  the  Negroes  the  muscles  of  this 
region  are  both  more  developed  and  less  distinct  than  in  the 
Whites. 

Indepcnilcntly  of  tiie  colour  of  the  iris,  the  eye  also 
exhibits  differences  which  constitute  so  many  characters, 
having  at  times  a  real  value  in  the  development  of  the  eye- 
lids, and  in  the  dimensions  of  the  palpebral  fissure.  Every- 
one knows  Chinese  eyes,  which  slope  from  below  upwards, 
and  from  inwards  outwards.  They  have  been  regarded  as 
peculiar  to  Yellow  races,  whether  pure  or  mixed.  Neverthe- 
less these  oblique  eyes  are  found  pretty  frequently  in  Kuroix», 
])rincipally  among  women,  and  are  united  to  a  fairness  and 
freshness  of  colour  which  aie  almost  exceptional,  as  well  as  to 
features  unanimously  regarded  as  most  plea.^ing. 

The  general  form  of  the  coimtenance,  ami  some  other 
peculiarities  drawn  from  the  prominence  of  the  check  iwnes, 


J 


68  The  Iluman  Species. 


from  the  form  and  prominence  or  retreat  of  the  chin,  etc., 
favoured  some  considerations  analogous  to  the  preceding. 
But  here  again  the  external  characters  are  wanting  in  the 
precision  which  we  shall  find  in  the  osteological  characters. 

X.  Charaders  drcnvn  from  the  trunk  and  limbs.  When 
speaking  of  proportions  I  have  already  pointed  out  some  of 
these  characters  ;  I  will  return  to  them  when  speaking  of  tlie 
skeleton.  I  will  here  only  make  a  few  remarks,  and  point 
out  two  remarkable  features. 

One  of  the  peculiarities,  which,  in  our  European  eyes, 
chiefly  contribute  to  bodily  beauty,  is  the  width  of  the 
chest,  of  the  waist,  and  of  the  hips.  A  body  of  a  uniform 
breadth  we  consider  ungraceful.  It  is  a  feature  which  is 
met  with  among  several  yellow  and  American  races.  The 
comparison  of  these  dimensions  will  furnish  indices  which  it 
is  interesting  to  compare.  But  we  have  only  taken  that  of 
the  chest,  or  more  generally  its  circumference.  To  judge 
from  the  numbers  given  by  various  authors,  the  Negroes 
of  Fernando  Po  would  have  the  most  fully  developed  chest. 
With  them,  its.circujnference  wouhl  be  I).r2  cm.  (3748 
inches).  The  English  would  come  ne.xt,  and  the  mininumi 
observed  would  be  among  the  Todas,  whose  thorax  would 
only  have  a  circumference  of  SI'S  c.ni.  (.32-2  inches). 

The  lluttciitot,  and  especially  the  Bi>sjesman  women, 
txhibit,  in  a  high  degree,  two  peculiaritie.s,  wliich  have  for 
a  \ox)fr  time  been  considered  special  to  them,  but  which  have 
l)een  met  with  elsewhere  :  I  mean  ntcntojnjr/la  and  the 
Jloitentut'a  apron  (tablier).  The  fir.st  consists  of  a  strange 
development  of  the  fatty  folds  in  the  buttocks,  from  which 
results  an  encjrmous  protuberance.  The  Hottentot  V^enus, 
of  wliich  a  model  exists  in  the  Paris  Museum,  gives  a  good 
example  of  it,  but  it  appears  that  this  character  can  be  still 
more  cxaggerat«d.  It  is  the  reproduction  in  man  of  a  feature 
noticed  by  Pallai*  u.s  characteri.stic  of  certain  races  of  sheep 
(»f  Central  Asia,  among  which  the  atrophy  of  the  tail 
coincides  with  the  appearance  of  enormous  fatty  protu- 
berances. 


Sieaiopygia  —  Tablicr.  369 

Stcatopygia  has  been  noticed  among  various  black  and 
Negroid  populations.  It  was  very  noticeable  in  a  queen  of 
Poun,  figured  upon  the  Egyptian  temple  built  by  M.  ^Mariette, 
for  the  Exhibition  of  l-SOT.  Livingstone  assured  us  that  it 
had  begun  to  manifest  itself  among  certain  women  of  the 
Boers,  who  are  nevertheless  of  a  quite  pure  white  race. 
But  nowhere  is  it  so  pronounced  as  among  the  Bosjesman 
women,  and  it  constitutes  one  of  the  most  striking  cha- 
racter of  the  race. 

It  is  not  exactly  the  .same  with  "  tahlier,"  resulting  from 
the  exaggerated  development  of  the  labia  minora,  which 
project  out  of  the  vulva  and  hang  down  in  front  of  the 
thigh-s.  This  feature  is  found  more  or  less  developed  in  a 
number  of  races,  and  has  given  rise  to  the  practice  of  circum- 
cision among  women.  In  Europe  there  is  doubtless  scarcely 
an  accoucheur  who  ha.s  not  noticed  it  on  some  occasion  in 
some  perfectly  pure  "Whites.  Nevertheless  it  seems  that 
among  the  Bosjesman  women  it  sometimes  reaches  a  de- 
velopment which  is  not  noticed  elsewhere.  In  the  Hot- 
tentot Venus,  of  which  the  Paris  Museum  possesses  a  model, 
the  length  from  the  right  reaches  55  millimetres  (21G 
inches),  and  from  the  left  61  millimetres  (24  inches)  ;  the 
breadth  is  34  millimetres  (1-33  inch)  from  the  right,  and 
from  the  left  32  millimetres  (1-2G  inch).  The  thickness, 
which  is  uniform,  is  15  millimetres  (58  inch). 


CHAPTER    XXX. 

ANATOMICAL    CIIAIIACTKRS. 

I.  Ostcolofj'ical  characters.  —  Without  denying  the  very 
great  value  of  exteraal  characters,  I  agree  with  almost  all 
anthropologists,  in  attaching  a  greater  importance  to  ana- 
tomical characters  in  the  inajoritij  of  cases.  Unfortunately, 
the  comparative  anatomy  of  human  races  has,  as  yet,  made 
hut  little  progress.  The  fact  is,  that  the  solid  portions,  the 
skeleton  alone,  have,  necessarily,  been  the  subject  of  serious 
examination.  The  study  of  the  perishable  portion  has 
scarcely  been  begun.  For  this,  and  several  other  reasons,  I 
shall  dibtingui.sli  tliesc  two  orders  of  facts,  and  discuss  sepa- 
rately our  knowledge  of  osteological  characters  and  oi'ganic 
characters. 

The  skeleton,  the  framework  of  the  bi»dy,  ])resents  tiie 
same  regions  as  the  latter :  we  can  distinguish  the  head,  the 
trunk,  and  the  extremities.  Each  of  these  regions  offers 
p<culiariti('s  more  or  less  connected  with  the  iliversity  of 
human  grouj)s.  Thu  best  studied,  and  fortunately  the  most 
important,  are  furnished  by  the  head.  For  some  years 
craniidogical  C(jllectiuns  have  been  singularly  on  the  in- 
crease ;  and  throughout  Europe,  the  study  has  been  entered 
upon  with  Cfjual  ardour.  Craniometrical  methods  and  in- 
htruments  have  multij)lied,  perhaj)s  a  little  beyttnd  the  actual 
need.  MM.  Vogt  and  Topinard  have  made  an  excellent 
summary  of  this  ma.ss  of  research.  I  can  only  refer  to 
their  publications.  I  cannot  here  even  reproduce  all  the 
results  already  acquired,  and  must  confine  myself  to  ])ointing 
out  a  few  of  the  priniij)al  ones. 


Osteological  Characters — Cephalic  Index.      371 

II.  Characfers  draivn  from  the  cranhnn  alone. — From  an 
nnthropological  point  of  view,  as  well  as  in  an  anatomical 
sense,  the  skull  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  cranium  and 
the  face.  Each  of  these  regions  has  its  special  indications, 
while  new  characters  again  rise  from  their  reciprocal  relations. 
Lot  us  briefly  review  them. 

The  general  form  of  the  cranium  depends,  above  all,  upon 
the  relation  existing  between  the  length  measured  from 
before  backwards,  and  the  breadth  taken  from  one  side  to 
the  other.  The  honour  of  having  appreciated  the  import- 
ance of  this  relation  belongs  to  Retzius.  He  made  use  of  it 
to  establish  the  distinction  between  dolichocephalic,  or  long- 
headed races,  and  hrachycephalic,  or  short-headed  races. 

Retzius  considered  the  relations  7  :  9  or  8  :  10  as  repre- 
senting the  limit,  left  by  him  uncertain,  of  dolichocephaly 
and  brachycophaly.  M.  Broca  proposed  the  formation  of  a 
third  group,  which  should  comprise  all  crania,  the  length  and 
breadth  of  which  presented  a  relation  comprised  within  these 
limit.s,  and  anthropologists  now  admit  with  him  the  mesati- 
ci'phalic  races.  In  expressing  these  relations  by  decimals, 
and  in  creating  the  term  Jiorizontal  cephalic  index,  now 
universally  adopted,  M.  Broca  lias,  moreover,  facilitated,  to  an 
extraordinary  degree,  the  study  of  this  character,  and  the 
ideas  to  which  it  may  give  birth.  His  .subdivision  of  the  two 
extreme  groups  into  two  has  also,  in  certain  cases,  been  an 
advantajre.  He  has  himself,  however,  shown  that  it  is  not 
Avise  to  go  too  far  in  this  direction. 

The  definitions  of  dolichocephaly,  me.saticephaly,  and 
brachycephaly  have,  it  seems  to  me,  been  somewhat  arbi- 
trarv.  I  draw  this  conclusi(^n  from  the  following  tables, 
which  I  borrow  from  MM.  Broca  and  Pruner  Bey.  They 
represent  the  means  discovered  by  these  eminent  investiga- 
toi-s.  I  have  merely  substituted  the  serial  order  for  the 
jiurely  geographical  distribution  adopted  by  M.  Pruner. 
Moreover,  I  have  continued  the  calculation  to  the  second 
decimal  place,  thus  renderiiig  the  distinctions  more  minute, 
and  the  general  result  more  striking. 


372 


The  Hnvian  Species. 


INDICES    OF    HUMAN    RACES 
Races.  Indices. 

Americans  of  the  Pampas,  of 
Bopota,  etc. 

Americans  of  Vera  Paz        .     . 

Germans  of  the  south  (men)    ) 

Germans  of  the  south  (women)  \ 

Laos 

Annamitcs 

Urachyccphalic  Turks 

Hrachycephalic  Mahiys 

Javanese 

Borneans 

Brachycephalic  Peruvians 

Puelches 

Lapps 

Ancient  brachycephalic  Euro- 
peans 

Kalmucks 

Brachycephalic  Bretons 

Brachycephalic  Katiaks 

Aetas  (women)  \ 

Ancient  Europeans  (women)  ) 

Malays  (women) 

Brachycephalic  New  Guinoans 

Mexicans 

Brachycephalic  Pcnivians 
(women) 

Indo-Chinese 

Tagals 

Belgians 

Dutch 

Hovas 

Papuans  with  aquiline  nose 

Re<l-SkinB 

Chinese  (women) 

Bellovaqucs  (men) 

Modern  (J recks    • 

Kabyles  (women) 

Jews  (women) 

Kourouj^lis  (men  and  women) 

New  Guincans 

Intermediary  AmcricanH 

Arancanians  (men) 


003 

0-87 

0-86 


0-8.i 

0-8  i 

0S3 

0-82 
0-81 

OSO 

0-71) 

0-78 

0-77 
077 


BEY. 

Indie 

.     0- 


AFTER    M.    PRUNE R 

Races. 
Chinese  (men) 
Ancient  Romans 
Kabyles  (men) 
Actas  (men) 
Tasmanians  (women) 
Dolichocephalic  Celts 
Scandinavians  (men) 
Dolichocephalic  Bretons . 
Modern    Italians    (men    and"^ 
women)  I 

Arabians  | 

Sacalaves  (men) 
New  Zealanders 
Dolichocephalic  Kanaks 
Micronesians 
Ta-i^manians  (men) 
New  Guineans  (women) 
Dolichocephalic  Turks 
Etruscans 
Phoenicians 

Scandinavians  (women) 
Tahitians 

Americans  of  Brazil,  Peru,  etc. 
Araucanians  (women) 
Neproes  (women) 
Kaffirs 

Semitic  Hindoos 
Ancient  Celts  (men  A:  women) 
Irihh 

Neprocs  (men) 
Sacalaves  (women) 
Australians  (women) 
Brahmans 
Dravidians 
Persians 

Bellovaques  (women) 
Bosjesmans 
Hottentots  (women) 
Hottentots  ^mon\ 
E.sfjuimau.x 


0-7G 


0-7: 


0-7-t 


(o. 


70 

■.".'.) 


INDKE.S    OF    IllMAN    RACES    AITKIt    M.     Ill:()C.\. 


I(n<<n. 
TBUK   IlltACIIYCKI'llALI. 


AmcricanH  (deformed  rranin) 

Syrians    of   r..l.«-l    (l.cikh, 
Bliphtly  deformed 

I^I)pH 

Baruria  and  RwaMa 
AarcrgnotA  of  St.  Nectairc 


Inilli-cK. 

\  I  03 
|0U3 

0-85 
OSt 


Rsccs. 
Finns 
Indo-China 

BUB-nn.VCIIYOKI'llAI.I. 
Alsace  and  Lorraine 
European  Russia 
Bretons  of  thi'  Coles du  Nord 

(Gaulish  cantons) 
Javanese 
Turks 


Indices. 
.     083 


()-.K2 


QX\ 


Os/iv/o^ical  Cliaractcrs — Ciphalic  hidcx. 


J/ 


Hares.  Iiulioe 

BUB-IlBACinVKriCALl— row/lM/wr/. 
Different  Mongols  ) 

Bn-tons  of  the  L'otcs  du  Nord  / 
(Breton  eantons)  ) 

Estonians 
French  Basques 

MESATICEPHAI.I 
North  Americans,  un(leforme<r 
South  Americans,  undeformed 
Non- Javanese  Malays 
North  French,  Bronze  age 
Parisians  of  Kith  cent. 
Parisians  of  12th  cent. 
Parisians  of  I'Jth  cent. 
Uallo-Uomans 
Roumanians 
Mexicans,  undeformed 

8CB-DOLICHOCEPHALI. 
Spanish  Basques  of  Zaraus 
Gauls  of  the  Iron  age 
Malgachcs  \ 

Chinese  / 

Copta 

Merovingian  French 
Sclaves  of  the  Danube  ' 
'J'asmanians 


OSl 


OSO 


>  0-79 


0-73 


0-77 


0-70 


Raoes.  Imliirea. 

SUB-DOLICHOCEPHALI  — C0n<l/iu«/. 

Polynesians 

Ancient  Kgyptians 

Guanches 

Cor.sicans  of  Avapezza  of  the 

18th  cent.  }  0- 

Bohemians  of  Roumania 
Papuans 
North  French  of  the  polished 

stone  age 


TBirE  DOLICUOCEPHALI. 

Kabyles 

Arabs 

Nubians  of  Elephantine 

South  French ;   Neolithic  age 

(cave  Homme-Mort) 
France;  Paheolithic  age 
Negroes  of  West  Africa 
Bengalcse 
Kaftirs 

Hottentots  and  Bosjesmans 
Austi-alians  i 

New  Caledonians  / 
Esquimaux  ) 


0-74 

0-73 

0-72 

0-71 


These  tables  mutually  confirm  and  complete  each  other 
in  general  result.s.  The  secondary  differences  which  dis- 
tinguish them,  are  doubtless  occasioned,  on  the  one  hand,  by 
the  number  of  crania  employed  by  the  two  authors  to  obtain 
their  means ;  on  the  other,  from  some  diversity  in  the  use  of 
these  materials.  M.  Pruner  Bey  distinguished  the  sexes, 
which  are  united  by  M.  Broca  :  the  latter  has  placed  iu 
one  group  the  Hottentots  and  Bo.«gesman.s,  separated  by  il. 
Pruner,  etc. 

From  M.  Brocii's  table  it  appeai-s  that  the  mean  of  all 
these  indices,  leaving  deformed  skulls  out  of  the  question,  is 
0  78.  From  a  numerical  point  of  view  this  would  be  that  of 
true  mesaticcphaly.  The  mean  group  otight,  it  seems  to  me, 
to  descend  ccjually  as  it  rise.^,  and  consequently  to  absorb  at 
least  a  part  of  M.  Broca's  sub-dolichocephali.  In  fact,  upon 
inspecting  the  two  tables,  it  appears  that  the  indices  above 
O'T-t  and  below  0  71)  comprise  the  greater  number  of  races 
belonging  to  the  three  fundamental  types,  and  taken  from  all 


374  ^/'^  Hunian  Species. 

parts  of  the  world.  It  seems  to  rae  that  true  mesaticephaly 
should  be  comprised  within  these  limits.  I  do  not,  however, 
propose  that  those  wliich  have  been  adopted  should  be 
changed. 

These  tables  give  rise  to  many  other  observations,  of  which 
I  sliall  only  j)oint  out  the  principal. 

M.  Pruncr  Bey  carried  his  calculations  to  the  third  place 
of  decimals;  M.  Broca  to  the  fourth.  I  have  gone  no 
further  than  the  second,  that  the  eye  may  be  more  easily 
attracted  by  the  series  formed  by  these  numbers,  so  im- 
portant in  the  characterization  of  races.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  the  greater  number  are  means  taken  from  a 
certain  number  of  crania.  Were  there  a  suthcient  number 
of  subjects  for  each  race,  and  all  the  indices  taken  from  each 
arranged  in  serial  order,  the  distance  from  one  to  the  other 
would  undoubtedly  be  no  longer  0  01,  but  would  be  diminished 
to  0001,  or  even  less.  The  insensible  shades  observed  in 
passing  from  one  individual  to  another  would  here  be  as 
remarkable  as  in  the  comparison  of  stature. 

There  is  no  need  to  insist  at  any  length  upon  the  inter- 
cro.ssing,  so  strikingly  betrayed  by  the  two  tables.  We  see 
thai  the  same  index  places  side  by  side  the  most  dissimilar 
races,  the  South  (jierman  with  the  Annamite,  the  Breton 
with  the  Kalmuck,  the  Belgian  with  the  Tagal,  the  Parisian 
with  the  Malay,  the  Italian  with  the  Maori,  etc.,  and  that 
by  their  .several  indices  the  white  races  are  .scattered  through- 
«/ut  almost  all  the  coloured  races.  I  need  not  return  to  the 
consequences  which  may  be  drawn  from  these  facts  from  a 
niouogcnistic  point  of  view. 

The  yellow  and  black  races  arc  wol  so  widely  separated  as 
the  white ;  the  former  arc  cither  brachyccplialic  or  mesati- 
cephalic,  tli<'  latter  all  dolichocephalic,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Aetjw.  1  have  shown  that  the  latter  belong  to  a  group 
of  populations  extending  from  the  Andaman  and  Philippine 
Islundw  to  Torres  Struit  in  Melanesia,  penetrating  New 
<iuinea,  and  forming  a  special  hrnnch  in  the  midst  of  the 
Melanesian  Negro  pf»pulation. 


Ostcologtcal  Characters — Cephalic  Index.     375 

The  case  appears  to  be  somewhat  similar  in  Africa.  This 
discovery,  entirely  contrary  to  the  ideas  gent-rally  maintained 
till  the  present  time,  is  due  to  M.  Hamy.  This  excellent 
investigator  recognized  brachycephaly  in  six  skulls  taken 
from  the  Paris  collections,  and  obtained  from  Cape  Lopez,  or 
the  mouths  of  the  Fernand  Vaz.  Shortly  afterwards,  M. 
Durhaillu  having  brought  from  the  same  districts  ninety- 
three  skulls,  the  measurements  of  which  were  made  public 
by  Englishmen,  M.  Hamy  calculated  the  indices,  and  found 
that  twenty-seven  of  these  crania  were  brachycephalic  or 
mesaticephalic.  There  is  then  every  indication  that  the 
Negro  stock  in  Africa  presents  a  special  6)'rt>?r/i  corresponding 
to  the  Negritoes.  This  result  is  confirmed  by  Schweinfurth, 
who  places  the  Niams-Niams  and  some  neighbouring  tribes 
amongst  the  brachycephali. 

We  see  that  the  horizontal  cephalic  index  cannot  serve  as 
a  starling  point  in  the  classification  of  human  races,  as 
Retzius  imagined  it  might.  We  also  see,  however,  that  all 
the  value  which  was  attributed  to  it  by  its  author,  is  pre- 
served in  the  characterization  of  secondary  grcjups. 

The  extreme  means  given  in  M.  Pruner  Bey's  table  were 
found  in  two  American  races,  the  Es(|uimaux  and  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Pampas  of  Bogota,  etc.  Whatever  the 
ditTerences  may  be  which  separate  these  two  races,  it  is 
evident  that  neither  of  them  belong  either  to  the  black  or 
the  white  type.  They  show  the  greatest  affinity  to  the 
yellow  type. 

From  one  extreme  mean  to  the  other  there  is,  according  to 
M.  Pruner,  a  difference  of  0  240  between  the  cephalic  indices; 
according  to  M.  Broca  of  0  14.")52  only.  This  difference  rests 
chioHy  tipon  the  fact  of  M.  Broca  rejecting,  as  defonncd,  skulls 
which  M.  Pruner  seems  to  accept  without  observation.  Again, 
the  individual  indices  present  a  much  wider  variation  than 
would,  at  first  sight,  be  expected.  Huxley  mentions  a  Mongol 
whose  cephalic  index  rises  to  0977,  and  a  New  Zealander, 
of  unmistakable  Melanesian  origin,  in  whom  it  descends  to 
0  (;2!^.  The  difference  is,  therefore,  0-348. 
17 


376  The  Human  Species. 

The  general  relations  of  length  and  breadth  in  the  crauimn 
of  human  races  is  apparent  from  hirth.  Novcrtlu'lcss,  frum 
the  researches  of  Gratiolet,  it  appears  that  dolichocephaly  is 
due  to  a  relative  development  of  bones,  which  varies  with 
age.  In  the  infant  it  is  essentially  occipital,  in  the  child 
temporal,  aud  frontal  in  the  adult  man.  In  the  woman  the 
elongation  of  the  cranium  depends  essentially  on  the  length 
of  the  temporal  regions  ;  in  this  respect,  then,  the  woman 
remains  a  child  all  her  life. 

Starting  from  these  primary  results,  the  same  observer  has 
compared  dolichocephalic  Whites  with  African  and  Melane- 
.siau  Negroes,  lie  found  that  the  frontal  dolichocephaly  of 
the  former  was  replaced  in  the  two  hhuk  races  by  an 
occipital  dolichocephaly,  M.  Broca  has  established  the  same 
fact  in  comparing  Basciues  with  Parisians.  Thus  the  dis- 
tinction proposed  by  U.  Gratiolet  furnishes  a  secondary, 
character,  which  may  be  of  use  in  certain  cases,  but  which 
falls  very  short  of  the  importance  with  which  some  liavc 
attempted  t<.  invest  it.  They  would  consider  occipital 
dolichocephaly  as  a  character  which  widely  separates  the 
Negro  from  the  ^Vhite  ;  the  observations  of  M.  Broca  show 
that  this  is  not  at  all  thr  casr,  and  from  the  observations  of 
M.  dratiolet  it  appears  that  we  iiave  here  oidy  the  persistence 
of  an  anterior  condition  common  to  both.  The  Negro  and 
the  Basque  preserve  throngliout  life  the  cephalic  character  of 
the  infant  Parisian,  tiius  forming  one  of  the  many  examples  of 
that  cessation  of  evolution  wliieli,  a,s  we  .see  more  distinctly 
every  day,  plays  a  considerable  part  in  the  characterization 
of  human  races. 

The  study  of  the  horizontal  cephalic  iiide.x  might  lead  to 
many  other  remarks,  i  shall  only  recall  the  results  obtained 
by  M.  I)i('tri(i.  It  appears  from  his  calcidations  that,  the 
t«»tal  i)opidation  of  the  ^dobe  given  at  12.SS  millions,  there 
arc  1()2(»  millions  of  dolichocephali,  and  only  2(i2  millions  of 
brachycephali.  But  the  iioilin  savant  places  in  the  first 
category  the  Ciiinesc,  who  are  mesaticephali,  and  must  alone 
i»e  reckoned  at  421   millions.     All  these  facts  considered,  it 


OsU'ological  Characters — Cranial  Mcas7ircmcnts.  2,77 

appears  to  nie,  from  the  tivbles  of  MM.  Pruner  Bey  and  Broca, 
anil  other  thita,  received  up  to  the  j)resent  time,  tliat  tho 
niesaticephali  are  much  more  numerous  than  either  the 
hrachycephali  or  dolichoccphali.  If  mesaticephaly  is  taken 
in  the  sense  jK)inted  out  above,  the  latter  in  their  turn 
predominate  over  the  hrachycephali,  owinj?  chieHy  to  Afri- 
can black  populations,  which  we  are  daily  Icarnin*:^  to  esti- 
mate a-s  much  more  dense  than  they  were  formerly  thought 
to  be. 

Rotziiis  only  compared  the  antero-posterior  and  transverse 
maximum  diameters.  Later  investigators  have  sought  the 
relation  between  the  latter  and  the  height  of  the  cranium. 
The  vertical  cephalic  index  ha-s  thus  been  obtained,  the  im- 
])ortance  of  which  is  at  once  evident.  It  plays  an  equally 
important  part  in  the  table  of  M.  Pruner  Bey,  and  gives  rise 
to  considerations  analogous  to  those  just  discussed.  I  cannot, 
however,  enter  into  all  these  details  without  exceeding  the 
limits  of  this  book.  From  the  same  motive  I  shall  not  men- 
tion the  other  measurements  of  the  cranium,  maximum  and 
minimum  frontal  diameters,  tottd  circirmference,  antero- 
posterior arc,  and  others. 

The  composition  of  the  cranium  can  only  vary  witiiiii  voiy 
narrow  limits.  Nevertheless,  in  Negroes,  in  ancient  Egyp- 
tians, etc.,  the  squamous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone  is 
sometimes  united  to  the  frontal  without  the  partial  inter- 
position of  the  wings  of  the  sphenoid.  This  is  a  remarkable 
fact,  being  in  direct  contratliction  to  the  j>W/tcip/<?«  of  con- 
nection.^, so  justly  regarded  by  Etienne  Geoffroy  as  one  of  the 
most  essential  principles  of  comparative  anatomy. 

In  the  prece«ling  case,  the  composition  of  the  cranium  is 
altered  by  the  suppression  of  a  normal  suture.  This  may  also 
be  caused  by  the  appearance  of  an  abnormal  suture,  by  which 
two  distinct  bones  are  formed  from  a  single  one.  Such  is  the 
ease  when  the  occipital  bone  seems  to  divitle,  so  as  to  leave 
its  upper  portion  free.  We  then  have  what  has  been  called 
the  epnctal  bone,  or  Intne  of  tlie  Incas,  because  Rivers  and 
Tsclauly  imagined  this  conformation  to  be  a  cliarartcr  pocu- 


3/8  The  Hjiman  Species. 

liar  to  the  race?.  M.  Jacquait,  however,  showed  that  it  was 
merely  the  result  of  a  cessation  in  the  evolution  of  the  occi- 
pital bone,  of  which  examples  are  found  in  the  most  different 
human  races.  It  is  to  a  similar  phenomenon  that  the  per- 
sistence of  the  niedio-frontal  suture  is  due.  This,  again,  is 
dfjubtless  universal,  but  much  more  frequent  in  the  Aryan 
white  race  than  in  coloured  races,  and  especially  in  the 
Xcf^roes. 

These  facts  are  connected,  moreover,  with  a  group  of  ob- 
servations and  ideas  which  Gratiolet  has  brought  forward  on 
several  occasions.  According  to  this  ingenious  observer,  the 
anterior  sutures  are  the  first  to  unite  in  inferior  races,  while 
in  superior  races  the  obliteration  commences  with  the  pos- 
terior sutures.  Again,  the  sutures,  as  a  whole,  have  a  ten- 
dency to  disappear  rapidly  in  savage  races,  while  the  isola- 
tion of  the  bones  of  the  cranium  is  persistent  in  civilized 
races,  and  particularly  in  the  European  White.  Thisilisposi- 
tion  allows  a  continuance  of  the  development  of  the  brain, 
although  it  gradually  becomes  slower.  Gratiolet  thus  ox- 
plains  the  continuance  of  the  intellectual  ]>ower,  so  remark- 
able in  men  who  have  constantly  exerciseil  their  intelligence. 
The  statistic  researches  of  Dr.  Pomerol,  while  correcting  all 
that  is  absolute  in  tliis  theory,  seems  to  confirm  it  in  some 
respects. 

Since  I  am  unable  to  review  all  the  eraiiial  charaftcrs,  I 
shall  pass  by  those  drawn  from  the  pn)miuence  of  different 
bones,  the  occipital  indices  of  Broca,  the  cephalo-spinal  of 
Mantegazza,  etc.  I  shall  only  say  a  few  words  upon  the  posi- 
tiutj  of  the  foramen  magnum,  and  the  sphenoidal  angle  of 
Welker,  but  I  shall  dwell  more  at  leie^th  uj»i>ii  the  cdjKlcUy 
of  the  cranium. 

I)'Aubeiiton,  in  a  sju't'ial  work,  shows  that  the  foramen 
magnunj  is  always  placed  further  back  in  animals  than  in 
man.  Soemmering  remarked  that  it  seemed  more  so  in  the 
Negro  than  in  the  White  ;  and  this  opinion,  which  was  ap- 
parently confirmed  by  some  niJ-astnements,  was  jit  once  ac- 
cepted by  a  number  of  anthroj>ologists,  and  regarded  by  them 


Ostcological  Characters — Sphaioidal  Angle.   379 

as  a  sxmmn  character,  but  this  result  was  attained  by  con- 
sidering the  position  of  the  aperture  relatively  to  the  entire 
lenfjth  of  the  skull,  including  the  face.  Now  it  is  at  once 
evident  that  the  forwanl  development  of  the  latter,  by  reason 
of  progtiathisin,  woiild  increase  tlie  apparent  retreat  of  the 
fornur. 

The  researches  of  M.  Broca  upon  cranial  projections 
enable  ns  to  state  this  problem  correctly,  and  to  give  the 
solution  of  it.  M.  Broca  compared  GO  Europeans  with  35 
Negroes.  Representing  the  total  projection  by  1000,  he 
found  that  in  the  former  the  anterior  projection  was  475, 
and  in  the  latter  498.  The  anterior  border  of  the  foramen 
magniim  is  then  further  removed  from  the  alveolar  border  in 
the  Negro  than  in  the  White,  the  dit^crence  being  23.  But 
this  projection  includes,  with  the  anterior  cranial  projection, 
iho  facial  j^roject ion,  winch  is  Go  in  the  European  and  138 
in  the  Negro.  If  this  is  deducted  from  the  former,  we  find 
that  the  White  stands  first  in  cranial  projection  alone,  and 
that  the  difference  is  50. 

We  k-aru  from  these  calculations  that,  relatively  to  the 
cranium  to  which  it  belongs,  the  foramen  magnum  is  placed 
more  forward  in  the  Negro  than  in  the  White,  which  is  by 
no  means  the  case  in  apes.  These  same  calculations  demon- 
strate the  real  difference  which  here  distinguishes  the  two, 
that,  namely,  of  the  forward  prolongation  of  the  face. 

In  drawing  comparisons  between  men  and  apes,  the 
sphenoidal  amjle  discovered  by  IX.  Virchow,  studied  by  M. 
Welker,  and  which,  thanks  to  M.  Broca,  may  be  mea.surcd 
without  making  a  section  of  the  skull,  presents  sj)tcial 
interest.  It  presents  an  inverse  evolution  in  man,  and  the 
Quadrumana  during  growth.  This  may  be  seen  from  the 
annexed  calculations  borrowed  from  M.  Welker  : — 


APES. 

^<ajou,  at  Inrth 
„       adult 

.     HO" 
.     .     174« 

Difference 

.  +:tr 

Orang.,  young     . 
.,        a«lnlt  . 
old. 

.   .    1. -..-.• 

.     172' 
.     .     174" 

DilTcrcnce 

.   +11.° 

3 So  The  Human  Species. 


MAN. 

8  Infants        .         .         .         .  HT 

10  Children  from  10  to  ISycars  137° 

30  Adult  Germans      .        .     .  134° 

Difference                  .  -7° 


I  have  already  insisted  that  facts  of  this  nature  are  irre- 
concilable with  those  theories  which  attribute  a  more  or  less 
pithecoid  ancestor  to  man. 

In  di.scussing  the  cranial  cavit\',  our  special  object  is  to 
supply  the  deficiency  of  information  upon  the  volume  and 
weight  of  the  brain.  Now,  from  this  point  of  view,  we  may 
eiusily  fall  into  error.  The  bony  cabinet  and  its  contents  are 
developed,  to  a  certain  extent  at  least,  independently.  This 
is  very  clearly  demonstrated  ])y  a  fact  which  was  observed 
by  Gratiolet,  and  is  too  frctjuently  forgotten.  The  subject 
is  an  infant  in  whom  the  cranium  presented  the  normal 
conformation.  The  brain  was,  nevertheless,  almost  entirely 
wanting.  In  well-formed  men  the  sinu.ses  and  coveriny^s  of 
the  brain  may  very  easily  be  more  or  less  developed  accord- 
ing to  the  indiviiliial  or  race,  and  influence  the  relative 
dimensions  of  the  bruin. 

Moreover,  the  exact  measurement  of  tiir  cipacity  of  the 
cranium  is  attended  by  diflieulties  which  have  not  yet  been 
entirely  surmountetl.  In  sj)ite  of  the;  improvements  intro- 
duced by  M.  liroca  in  his  nu  ihod  of  me:usuring  with  shot, 
consecutive  mea.surements  of  the  .same  cranium  by  the  same 
ob.server  will  vary  consiiKrably  in  the  result. 

Again,  there  arc  peculiarities  to  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion, the  iniport.inre  of  which  h.'vs  long  been  neglected.  We 
have  known  for  several  years  that  the  stature  luis  an 
influence  upon  the  weight  of  the  brain.  It  cannot  be  with- 
out influence  upon  the  e.ivify  l)y  which  the  latter  is  enrlo.sed. 
M.  liioca  has  shown  that  sex  is  of  itself  a  cau.se  of  variation. 
In    the   woman   the    mean   cranial    capacity  is   alwaj's  less 


Ostcological  Cluxracto's— Cranial  Capacity.  38 1 

tlwui  ill  tlio  man,  and  the  difference  varies  between  different 
riu't's. 

Nevertheless,  in  exaniinini;  a  sufficient  number  of  skulls, 
the  causes  of  error  may  counterbalance  each  other,  and  the 
means  may  be  accepted  as  giving  results  sufficiently  near 
the  truth.  The  results  obtained  by  the  same  observer  arc 
especially  favourable  for  comparison,  and  from  them  certain 
results  may  be  obtained.  There  is  no  reason,  therefore,  why 
the  cranial  capacity  should  not  ha  considered  as  a  character 
well  worthy  of  study.  But  its  importance  must  not  be 
exaggerated. 

M.  Broai  arrived  at  the  following  result,  in  considering 
the  distinction  of  extreme  races.  The  cranial  capacity  of 
the  Australian  being  represented  by  100,  that  of  the  African 
Negro  is  lllGO,  and  that  of  fair  European  races  124  8. 

I  borrow  from  niv  eminent  colleague  the  following  table, 
published  by  M.  Topiuard  in  his  AidhropoloQie.     This  table 


nACES. 

MEN. 

WOMEN. 

DIKFEBENCE. 

Cavern  of  Homme  Mort.    Neo- 

1G16 

1507 

109 

lithic 

Gallo-Brctons  .... 

i.->9a 

H2r, 

173 

Auvorpnatfl  ..... 

l.V.'H 

144.-. 

153 

Spanish  Ha«<iucs 

1.-.74 

i:t.-.(j 

218 

Bas- Bretons          .         .         .     . 

l.-.tU 

i:ii;(; 

11(8 

rontcnqK)rary  ParisiaiiH  . 

l.-,.-,s 

VX.M 

221 

Oiianchr.s 

1.V.7 

i3.-.:i 

204 

CorbiianH.         .... 

1.V.2 

i.3r,7 

185 

Ks<iiiiuiaux 

1. -.:{'.» 

1428 

111 

Chincfe     ..... 

l.-.is 

1S8.3 

135 

McrovinpianB 

\:m 

1361 

143 

New  t^alcdnnians 

\u\o 

13.30 

i:^o 

Noproow  of  Wtht  .\frica        .     . 

u:u) 

1281 

179 

Tasmanians       .... 

\\:,2 

1201 

2:.i 

AuHtralians 

i:U7 

1181 

i.-.r. 

Nubians 

i:{2'j 

12'J3 

31 

gives  the  mean  cranial  capacity,  in  cubic  centimetres,  for  a 
certain  number  of  races  in  both  sexes.  I  have  merely 
substituted    the    scri;d    order    in    the    men    for    the    almost 


3$ 2  The  Human  Species. 

geographical  division  of  the  author,  and  calculated  the 
difference  between  the  sexes. 

We  here  observe  liicts  of  intercrossing  similar  to  those 
which  I  have  so  often  pointed  out.  The  Merovingians,  a 
white  race  of  the  first  order,  are  placetl  between  the  yellow 
Chinese  and  the  New  Caledonians,  Alelanesian  Negroes. 

But  the  chief  value  of  this  table  is  to  show  into  what 
serious  errors  an  estimation  of  the  intellectual  development 
of  a  race  from  its  cranial  capacity  would  lead  us.  By  such 
an  estimation,  the  troglodytes  of  the  cavern  of  L'Homme- 
Mort  would  be  superior  to  all  races  enumerated  in  the 
table,  including  contemporary  Parisians,  and  the  Chinese 
would  corae  after  the  Esquimaux.  The  French  populations 
occupy,  it  is  true,  the  upper  portion  of  the  table,  and  the 
several  Ne^ro  races  arc  at  the  bottom.  But  here,  again, 
when  we  find  the  Nubians  following  closely  upon  the 
Australians,  we  must  confess  that  there  can  be  no  real 
relation  between  the  dimensions  of  the  cranial  capacity  and 
social  development.  Wc  meet,  moreover,  with  similar  ques- 
ti(»ns  when  we  turn  our  attention  to  the  brain. 

The  following  table,  which  I  borrow  from  Morton,  is  as 
instructive  as  the  preceding.  It  includes  a  greater  number 
of  races.  Moreover,  the  American  savant  has  not  only 
given  the  means,  but  also  the  maxima  and  minima  as 
established  by  his  researches.  His  measurements  arc  given 
in  cubic  inches.  As  they  are  only  required  for  comparison 
with  those  of  other  observers,  I  have  not  reduced  them  to 
cubic  centimetres,  I  have  again  confined  myself  to  arranging 
the  means  in  a  descending  series,  and  to  calculating  the 
difft:rences  between  the  maxima  and  minima. 


Ostcological  Characters — Cranial  Capacity.  38^ 


RACES. 


Germans 

Anplo- Americans 

Arabs    ...... 

(ircco-Egyptians  of  the  Catacombs 

Irish 

Malays 

Pensians        ) 

Armenians  .        . 

Circawiiins    ) 

Iroqnois        i 

LenaiK-s       f 

Cherokeos    r       •        •        •        ■ 

yhoshones    j 

African  Nc|,'roes 

Polynesiaua 

Chinese  ) 

Creole  Negroes  of  North  America  j 

Hindoos  \ 

Ancient  Egyptians  of  the  Catacombs/ 

Fellalis  ) 

Mexicans 

Peruvians    ^ 

Australians  > 

Hottentots  i 


90 

90 

89 
88 
87 
86 


S4 

83 

82 

80 
79 


105 

lU 

97 

98 

97 


94 


104 

99 
84 
91 
^•9 
91 
96 
96 
92 
101 
83 
83 


MIN. 

DIFF.  '■ 

91 

14 

70 

44 

82 

15  1 

84 

14   1 

74 

23 

78 

19 

68 

29 

75 

19 

70 

34 

65 

34 

82 

2 

70 

21 

73 

16 

77 

14 

68 

28 

66 

30 

67 

25 

58 

47 

68 

15 

63 

20 

This  table,  borrowed  from  one  of  the  most  eminent 
supporters  of  polygenism,  should,  I  think,  oxfitc  rcHections 
in  all  who  })ay  any  attention  to  facts. 

Wc  find  the  Chinese  placed,  by  their  mean  cranial  capacity, 
below  the  Polyne.'^ians,  the  African  Ncj^roes,  and  the  savage 
tribes  of  North  America.  Is  this  really  the  po.sition  which 
their  civilization  a.ssigns  to  them  ? 

In  Morton's  table  the  Creole  Negroes  of  America  fall 
below  the  African  Negroes  by  the  Ics-ser  development  of  the 
same  cavity.  Meigs  has  confirmeil  this  curious  fact  in 
several  ways,  and  has  even  made  the  difference  still  wider  ; 
H()"8  for  the  former  and  .S.*V7  for  the  latter.  And  yet  it  is 
universally  acknowledgeil  that  Negroes  born  in  America  arc 
intellectually  superior  to  their  African  brothers.  Even  Nott 
allows  that  it  is  .so.  With  them,  therefore,  tlie  intelligence 
increases,  \\\\\\\-  the  niuiial  capacity  diminishes. 


3S4  ^TJic  I  I  It  man  Species. 

This  fact  is  the  more  singular  since  the  observations  of 
M.  Broca  upon  Parisian  skulls  of  the  thirteenth  to  the 
nineteenth  century  show  that  the  cranial  capacity  increases 
with  general  intellectual  progress.  The  measurements  taken 
by  the  same  ol)server  upon  individuals  belonging  to  the  edu- 
cated and  illiterate  classes  lead  to  the  same  conclusion. 

Still,  however,  Ave  cannot  disregard  the  calculations  of 
Morton  and  Meigs;  and  this  experience,  bearing  upon 
numerous  populations  of  the  same  race,  seems  to  establish 
beyond  a  doubt  the  fixct,  which  already  clearly  results  from 
the  comparison  of  different  races,  namely,  that  the  develop- 
ment of  the  intellectual  faculties  of  man  is,  to  a  great  extent, 
independent  of  the  capacity  of  the  cranium  ami  the  volume 
of  the  brain. 

I  must  here  confine  myself  to  the  statement  that  the  dimi- 
nution of  the  cranium  is,  in  North  America,  one  of  the 
chardcters  of  the  Creole  Ke<jro  race,  dciived  from  the  Afri- 
can Xef/ro  race. 

'I'hc  intercros.sing  of  races  is  again  demonstrated  in  this 
table  by  the  means.  The  Hindoos  and  ancient  Egyptians 
are  separated  from  the  othi-r  White  races  of  the  Negroes, 
Chinese,  Polynesians,  and  Red-Skins. 

Hut  the  maxima  and  minima  show  still  more  clearly  how 
far  this  confusion  w<juld  be  carried,  if  individuals  were 
compared.  Hottentots  and  Australians,  by  their  maxiiiui  of 
83,  wouM  stand  before  (Ji.'rmans  and  Anglo-Americans, 
who.sc  miiiiniuni  is  not  so  high.  With  much  greater  reason 
would  they  be  placeil  in  the  midst  of  all  the  other  races, 
wliich,  by  their  means,  are  placed  above  them.  This  is  not 
all.  lietween  the  highest  and  the  lowest  nuan.  between  the 
English  and  Hottentots,  or  Australians,  the  dilVerenco  in 
cranial  capaeity  is  oidy  twenty-ont;  cubic  int  lies.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  m.ixiinum  and  minimuiu  (»f  the  Chinese  is 
exactly  tbo  Harne.  AjkI  it  is  much  greater  in  nine  other 
races,  being  more  than  doiible  in  theCiermans  and  Peruvians. 

Do  we  m(!et  wiili  lacts  like  tho.se  resulting  from  the 
mcasurementH  of  Morton  in  the  n]y;cics  of  a  single  f/enera  of 


Ostcohgical  Characters — Facial  Index.       3S5 

plants  and  animals?  Certainly  not;  and  this  table  is  of 
itself  sufficient  to  prove  that  the  human  groups  are  races, 
■Nvhich  have  little  uniformity  owing  to  the  absence  of  selection, 
and  in  no  sense  species. 

III.  Characters  drmm  from  f he  face  alone. — Similar  con- 
clusions to  those  furnisiied  by  the  examination  of  the  cranium 
arc  suggested  by  that  of  the  entire  face.  It  may  be  either 
broad  or  long;  and  in  order  to  distinguish  these  two  forms 
by  special  epithets,  we  may  employ  the  terms  curyopsc,  Jol't- 
chopsc  {o\}/i9,  theatrical  ma''<h). 

Since  the  face  is  much  more  irregular  in  foiTn  than  the 
cranium,  it  gives  rise  to  a  far  greater  number  of  observations. 
Each  one  of  its  features  wouhl  deserve  our  attention,  were 
we  writing  a  detailed  work,  and  the  more  so,  as  such  close 
study  as  this  can  only  Iwast  an  existence  of  a  few  j-ears. 
Failing  space,  I  shall  confine  myself  to  pointing  out  the 
nature  of  the  characters,  and  commenting  upon  some  of  the 
principal  results. 

In  the  living  subject  the  length  of  the  face  is  estimated 
from  the  commencement  of  the  hair  to  the  extremity  of  the 
cliin.  But  measurements  of  this  kind  arc  difficult  to  procure 
when  exotic  races  are  in  question.  Skulls,  therefore,  liave 
been  examined.  In  the  latter,  the  inferior  maxillary  bone 
is  very  often  wanting,  and  even  the  teeth  have,  in  too  many 
cases,  fallen  out.  The  inferior  limit  of  the  length  of  the  face 
could  therefore  be  carried  no  further  than  the  alveolar 
border  of  the  superior  maxillary  bone.  The  point  sus-nasal 
of  M.  Broca  serves  as  the  superior  limit.  The  interval  ct)m- 
prised  within  these  limits  is  always  less  than  the  brca<Ifh 
measured  across  the  zvgomatic  ardies.  In  multiplying  by 
100  the  length  of  the  face  and  dividing  it  by  the  1)readth, 
M.  Broca  has  obtained  the  facial  imhw.  The  following  are 
some  examples  which  I  borrow  from  him  \\itli  M.  Topjnanl  : 


EHquimnux  . 
Nrprocs   . 
Gallo-nicfun- 
Auverpm''* 


7:V4 

c.s-r. 


KcwCftlc<l(>ninn«.         . 

.     M-2 

I'lirisiiiiis 

.     .     (■.."> -9 

.Viixtraliniis  .          .         . 

.     (■..")•(» 

Tasiii.'iiiiiiMs       ,         , 

Cl'-6 

3S6  The  Human  Species. 

In  spite  of  the  small  number  of  these  examples,  they 
might  lead  to  remarks  similar  to  those  which  I  have  already 
brought  forward  ou  several  occixsions,  and  which  I  believe  it 
to  be  unnecessary  to  repeat. 

The  nose  is  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  human 
face.  Its  general  fortii  and  dimensions  furnish  some  of  the 
most  special  external  characters  in  the  distinction  of  races. 
But  the  morphological  variations  of  this  organ,  presenting 
considerable  difficulties,  had  long  been  neglected.  M.  Topin- 
ard  filled  this  gap,  and  showed  that  it  is  possible,  even  upon 
casts,  to  take  mcjisurements  suitable  for  indices.  Neverthe- 
less, it  is  the  skull  that,  up  to  the  present  tinle,  has  contri- 
buted the  clearest  indications.  The  breadth  of  the  nose  taken 
at  the  opening  of  the  nasal  fossa3  and  multiplied  by  100, 
compared  with  the  lengtii  from  the  spine  to  the  naso-frontal 
articulation,  has  furnished  M.  Broca  with  the  terras  of  the 
relation  expressed  by  his  nasdl  iiultj:,  the  study  of  which 
ha-s  led  him  to  important  results. 

Measurements,  taken  upon  more  than  1,200  skulls  of  all 
races,  have  enabled  M.  Broca  to  give  oO  ()0  as  the  moan  nasal 
index.  In  the  entire  number  of  races  this  index  varies  from 
4233  (Ksquimaux)  to  o8"38  (Houzouanas).  We  see  that  the 
variation  is  only  IGOo.  The  individual  ditfereiices  are  much 
wider,  ext<'ndiiig  from  72'22  (Houz<Juan;is)  to  .'LV71  (Rouma- 
nians), thus  giving  a  maximum  variation  of  .SlJ  .'>!. 

The  difference  between  the  maximum  and  minimum  in 
the  .same  race  is  also  very  striking.  Wiien  it  exci-eds  ten, 
.M.  Broca  Kccms  to  attribute  it  almost  exclusively  to  cro.ssing. 
He  lias  made  an  ingenious  ai)pUcatiun  of  this  iilea  in  the 
history  of  the  cro.ssing  of  the  1"  ranks  with  the  races  who  pre- 
ceded tln.uj  in  France.  But  we  can  scarcely  allow  that  this 
JH  always  the  cjtse  when  we  see  the  difference  rising  to 
21  98  in  the  Negroes  of  VW'st  Afiica,  and  to  2.')().1  in  the 
Hottentots  and  Bosjesmans.  It  seems  to  me  that  this  is  only 
the  rojM'tili<)n  of  a  fa«"t  which  we  hrive  alre.-idy  proved  with 
regard  to  the  capacity  of  crania. 

M.  Broca  has  njade   use  of  his  na.sal  inde.x   to  <livide  all 


Ostcological  Characters — Nasal  Index.       38 7 

liuman  races  into  three  j^roups  from  tliis  point  of  view.  In 
races  of  a  mean  nasal  index,  or  Mesovhuiian,  it  only  varies 
from  48  to  53.  Bi-low  these  are  ranged  races  with  a  long 
narrow  nose,  or  Lrptorhinian  ;  and  above,  those  with  a  broad 
and  more  or  less  flat  nose,  PUityrhutian. 

The  groups  thus  obtained  are  fairly  homogeneous.  The 
Lepturhinians  would  comprise  only  Whites,  if  the  Escjuimaux 
had  not  most  uncxj^ectedly  stepped  in.  The  Platyrhinian 
group  is  composed  exclusively  of  Negroes,  and  includes  all  the 
races  of  this  type  studied  by  M.  Broca,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Papuans,  who  are  perhaps  a  mixed  race.  The  Meso- 
rhinians  embrace  all  the  Yellow  races,  as  well  as  the  Poly- 
nesians, all  the  Americans  and  the  Papuans,  which  I  have 
just  mentioned.  We  also  find  in  this  group  AUophylian 
Whites,  the  Esthonians,  and  the  Finns,  who  are  thus  separated 
from  the  Aryans  and  Semites. 

In  short,  if  wo  take  moans  alone  into  consideration,  the 
nasal  index,  taken  as  a  basis  in  the  division  of  races,  breaks 
a  much  smaller  number  of  natural  relations  than  the  cha- 
racters which  we  have  as  yet  discussed.  Apart  from  the 
cxceptiona  which  I  have  just  alluded  to,  intercrossing  here 
only  appears  between  races  belonging  to  the  same  type.  But 
as  soon  as  we  take  individual  variations  into  accuunt,  the 
mixture,  so  often  observed,  reappears. 

M.  Broca  ha^  studied  the  na-sal  index  not  only  in  the  adult. 
l)ut  also  when  in  a  state  of  evolution.  He  found  that  in  an 
embryo  of  three  months  this  inilex  was  7(j  <S0  ;  in  a  |K'rfect 
fa'tus,  G218;  in  a  child  of  six  years,  50-0;  in  modern 
Parisians,  46'8l.  Thus  the  index  constantly  dimini.shes  as 
the  botly  approaches  its  definite  form.  Our  author  concludes 
from  this  fact  that  the  variations  ob.served  in  the  same  nice 
may  often  be  referred  to  an  arrest  of  development,  or  rather 
;in  arnst  of  evolution,  and  he  seems  disposed  to  attach  the 
jjlatyrhinism  of  Negroes  to  the  sami'  cause.  He  thus  adopts 
the  idea  of  Serres  ti|K)n  the  general  character  of  the  Negro, 
which  ideas  we  shall  examine  presently.  This  I  regard  as  a 
very  correct  explanation  of  the  origin  of  one  of  the  distinctive 


383  The  Human  Species, 

features  which  must  dearly  distinguishes  the  bhiok  race.  It 
is  not,  however,  to  the  nasal  index  alone  that  this  fact  is 
ap])licable,  as  I  have  already  proved. 

The  orh'dal  index,  also  studied  by  M.  Broca,  is  obtained 
by  multiplying  the  vertical  diameter  of  the  orbit  by  100,  and 
dividing  the  ])roduct  by  the  horizontal  diameter.  Considered 
from  this  point  of  view,  races  are  divided  into  three  groups, 
namely,  the  mecjascmes,  whose  mean  index  rises  to  89  and 
higher;  the  mesosemes,  whose  index  varies  from  83  to  89  only; 
and  the  microsemes,  whose  index  fall  below  83. 

The  highest  mean  index  stated  by  .M.  Broca,  is  found  in 
the  Aymuras,  in  whom  it  rises  to  98  8.  But  we  know  that 
the  cranium  is  artificially  deformed  by  this  people,  and  the 
practice  may  in  some  measure  influence  the  form  of  the 
orbit.  The  maximum  in  normal  skulls  wa.s  observed  in 
the  Polynesians  of  Hawai,  where  it  was  9o-40.  The  mini- 
mum of  77*01  is  presented  by  the  Guanchos  of  Tenoriffe. 

The  mean  maximum  variation  is  then  18  30. 

But  here,  as  in  all  other  cases,  individual  variations  arc 
mucii  more  considerable.  AVithout  even  taking  the  Aymaras 
into  consideration,  whose  index  sometimes  exceeds  109,  M. 
Broca  found  10833  in  a  Cliineso,  105  in  a  Chinese  and  an 
Indian  Red-Skin,  100  in  two  wom(>n  of  the  Alanpicsas  Islands, 
a  Ptruvian  woman,  a  Malay,  a  Mexican,  an  Indo-Chinese,  a 
woman  of  ancient  Egypt,  of  Auvergne,  and  Paris.  It  is  un- 
neces-sary  to  insist  upon  the  meaning  of  these  similarities. 

The  smallest  orbital  index  known  is  that  of  the  old  man 
of  (  Vo-.Magnon,  which  we  have  seen  to  be  (jl3(:.  Above  the 
latter,  an<l  at  small  distances  from  each  other,  may  be  ranged 
u  Tasmunian,  a  Merovingian,  the  Mentone  man  (of  the  same 
race  «w  that  of  Cro-Magnon),  a  Chianchc  of  Teneriflo,  a  New 
Ciledoiiiaii,  an  Australian,  a  N»d)ian,  a  Kaflir,  a  Spanish 
B.xscjue,  an  Auvergnat,  and  lastly,  llie  woman  of  Cro- Magnon, 
whose  index  is  712."). 

The  maximtim  indiviilual  vaiiation  is  then  4(»'87. 

U|X)n  examining  the  table  of  M.  Broca,  we  find  that  the 
white  races  arc  represented  iti  the  three  grotips.     Tlie  Dntc  h 


Ostcolo(^ical  Characters — Orbital  Index.      3S9 

of  Zriandam  fit^uie  among  the  nipgasemcs *l)ctwcc'ii  the  alnni- 
gincs  of  Mexico  and  those  of  North-west  America.  Tlie 
CJallo-Bretons  are  placed  in  the  same  group,  between  the 
ChiHans  and  the  Indo-Chinese.  The  Whites  form  the  great 
majority  in  the  group  of  mososemos,  and  are  much  the 
mo.st  numerous  in  that  of  the  microsomes.  One  of  their 
races  indeed,  the  natives  of  TeneritTe,  terminates  the  series, 
immediately  preceded  hy  the  Tivsmanians  and  Australians. 

Thus,  as  far  as  the  wiiite  race  is  concerned,  the  mean 
orbital  index  proclaims  an  intercrossing  comparable  with  all 
that  we  have  hitherto  observed.  The  case  is  different  with 
the  two  other  finulamental  types.  They  are  distinctly  sepa- 
rated by  this  character.  All  the  yellow  races  are  mega.seme.s, 
for  in  my  opinion  the  Lapps,  considered  by  M.  Broca,  to 
l)elong  to  them,  are  in  reality  allophylian  Whites.  All  the 
ne£To  races  are  niesosemes  or  microsomes.  There  is  a  differ- 
ence  of  4'()3  between  the  aborigines  of  Brazil  representing 
the  la.st  megasemes  which  have  not  been  deformed,  and  the 
Papuans  of  Touil  Island,  who  have,  of  all  Blacks,  the  highest 
orbital  index. 

The  usual  intercrossing  would  undoubtedly  reappear  if  we 
took  iuilividual  variations  into  consideration.  The  ililYerence 
'.ISO  which  separates  the  man  of  Cro-Magnon  from  tin-  woman 
of  the  same  race  is  sufficient  proof. 

M.  Broca  has  studied  the  influence  of  sex  and  age  upon 
tlie  orbiUd  index.  I  cannot  follow  him  into  these  details, 
however  interesting  they  may  be.  I  will  only  remark,  that, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  nasal  index,  it  diminishes  with  the  pro- 
gress of  evolution,  and  remains  in  all  races  greater  in  the 
woman  than  in  the  man.  The  latter  preserves,  then,  through- 
out life,  a  certain  infantile  charact(M". 

This  observation  applies  ecjually.  to  races  distinguished  for 
the  size  of  their  orbiUil  index.  The  yellow  races,  including 
the  Chinese,  present  therefore,  if  compared  with  white  races, 
an  arred  of  ivotufion.  Yet  the  Chinese  are  far  suiK'rior  to 
all  the  microsome  or  mesoseme  black  races,  antl  particularly 
the  Australians  and  Tasmanians,  who  are  only  fi>llowed  by 


390  The  Hiivian  Species. 

the  inhabitants  of  Tencriffe  in  the  lowest  places  of  the  table. 
If  we  take  the  white  as  the  normal  type,  we  must  regard 
these  two  j^opulations  as  presenting  an  cjre.ss  of  evolution ; 
but  this  excess  is  still  more  marked  in  the  Guanches  of 
Tcneriffe,  who,  in  their  moile  of  life,  arc  considerably  superior 
to  the  Tasmanians  and  Australians. 

A  general  conclusion  follows  from  these  facts,  namely  :  that 
the  characters  resulting  from  an  arrest  or  excess  of  evolution, 
are  not  of  themselves  a  sign  of  superiority  or  inferiority. 

M.  Broca  has,  with  great  propriety,  compared  the  orbitid 
index  of  apes  with  that  of  man.  As  might  easily  have  been 
foreseen,  the  laws  of  development  are  the  same  in  the 
highest  groups  of  apes  as  in  man.  The  influence  of  sex  and 
age  are  as  noticeable  in  the  gorilla,  the  orang,  and  in  the 
chimpanzee  as  in  our  own  races.  It  seems  to  be  less  striking 
in  the  lower  apes. 

The  orbital  index  groups  apes,  like  man,  into  megasemes, 
mcsosemes  and  microseincs.  But  this  character  connects 
the  anthropomorphous  apes  with  the  lowest  types,  with  the 
cebida},  and  even  the  lemurida*,  which  we  now,  from  their 
embryogeny,  connect  with  the  ruminants  or  edentatJU  The 
genera  of  simiadae  are  divided  into  three  groups.  M.  Broca 
draws  from  these  facts  the  very  first  conclusion  that  no 
value,  as  characterising  gradations,  ciin  be  attributed  to  the 
orbital  index. 

It  is  well  known  that  in  the  Negro  the  entire  face,  and 
csj)ecially  the  lower  portion,  jjrojects  forward.  This  trait 
lias  been  termed  jn'OfjiKithism.  In  the  living  subject  it  is 
i-xaggerated  by  the  thickness  of  the  lij)s.  But  it  is  also 
apparent  in  the  skull,  and  constitutes  one  of  its  most 
striking  characters.  .M.  Tdpinard  has  studied  it  in  a  special 
manner,  antl  by  a  nu  thu<l  of  his  own.  He  has  with  justice 
separated  fttcldl  ]>r<)fj>ia(liisrii,  which  end)races  the  entire 
fiu*e,  from  the  various  ludx'illury  and  dental  2'ri>;/iiafhim)LH, 
whicli  di.stinctions  I  proposed  some  time  ago..  The  index  is 
here  furnished  by  the  relation  existing  between  the  height, 
anil  th<-  horizontal  projection  of  the  ngion  under  c<»nsidera- 


Ostcological  Characters — Prognathisiu.       39 1 

tion.  But  M.  Topinard  has  recently  replaced  this  index  by 
the  angle  formed  by  the  'profihi  lines  with  the  horizontal 
plane.  This  is  a  happy  modiHcation,  as  it  presents  a  inoro 
precise  idea  to  the  mind. 

The  most  important  of  the  several  prognathisms  is  that 
arising  from  the  portion  of  the  maxillary  bone  situated  below 
the  nose,  and  comprising  the  alveoli  of  the  incisors  and 
canines.  This  is  the  sub-nasal-alveolar  jirorjnathism,  or  the 
supenor  maxUlary  prognathism.  It  is  this  trait  of  the 
Negro  which  is  opposed  to  the  orthogiiathisin  of  the  White. 
This  character  suggests  remarks  similar  to  those  which  I 
have  already  made  so  ofteiL  It  is  the  evident  result  of  the 
follijwing  summary,  which  I  borrow  almost  verbatim  from 
M.  Topinard's  work. 

All  races  and  all  individuals  are  more  or  less  prognathous. 
As  a  rule,  in  European  races  it  is  only  slight ;  it  is  much 
more  marked  in  the  Yellow  and  Polynesian  races,  and  more 
strongly  marked  still  in  Negro  races.  Let  us  remark,  however, 
that  even  mean  indices  place  the  Tasmanians  (7t)''28)  above 
tiie  Finns  and  Esthnniaiis  (7o"'53j,  and  verv  noar  the 
Merovingians  (75°54). 

The  minimum  prognathism,  or  maximum  ortliogiiatliism, 
is  found  in  the  (lUanches  (SI ''34),  and  the  opposite  extreme 
in  the  Namaquois  and  Bosjesmans  (oD'SS).  The  means 
establish  limits  between  the  various  sub-divisions  of  the 
great  fundamental  races.  Individual  variations,  however,  in 
this  ca~se,  as  in  others,  obliterate  these  distinctions.  In  all 
races  there  are  exceptions,  Negrot-s  in  whom  prognathism 
is  no  more  marked  than  in  Whites,  and  Whites  in  whom  it  is 
very  pronounced.  M.  Topinard  regards  these  exceptional 
cases  as  examples  of  crossing,  atavism,  or  as  pathological 
phenomena.  There  is  certainly  some  truth  in  this  view, 
I  have  long  referred  the  prognathism,  sometimes  so  curiously 
marked  in  certain  Parisian  women,  to  atavism.  But  we 
must  also  take  into  consideration  these  ofci  Hat  ions  of 
characters,  which  we  everywhere  meet  with  in  races  not 
subject  to  selection  with  any  special  aim. 


392  The  Ihmiaii  Species. 

In  any  case  wc  cannot  consider  cessation  of  development 
as  explaining  the  existence  of  a  most  striking  prognathism 
in  certain  individuals  of  incontestably  pure  white  race.  In 
fact,  far  from  diminishing  with  age,  like  the  preceding 
characters,  it  rather  increases.  Even  in  the  European,  the 
cliild  is  manifestly  more  orthognathoiis  than  the  adult. 
With  reganl  to  Negroes,  Pruner  Bey  observed  some  time 
a<T0,  and  I  have  myself  proved,  that  the  child  presents 
.scarcely  any  trace  of  that  feature,  so  characteristic  in  the 
parents.  It  is  not  till  the  period  of  puberty  that  it  appears, 
and  is  rapidly  developed.  The  forward  projection  of  the 
maxillary  bone  is,  therefore,  in  both  races  a  f:ict  of  normal 
evolution,  merely  more  marked  in  the  one  than  in  the  other. 
Far  from  being  the  result  of  a  cefisaiion,  prognathism  betrays 
an  excess  of  development. 

The  absolute  theory  of  Scrres,  which  wuuUI  treat  the 
Ncgio  merely  a.s  a  White,  subjected  to  a  ce.s.sation  of  general 
development,  is  then  here  at  fault.  The  truth  is,  that  in  the 
black  nice,  organic  evolution  is  less  advanced  than  the 
general  type  of  white  race  in  some  respects,  and  more  so  in 
ofhrrs.  This  is  a  fact  upon  which  I  have  long  insisted  in  my 
lectures  at  the  Mu.seum,  and  which  is  conlirme*!,  as  wc  now 
see,  by  the  more  exact  work  of  later  years. 

We  see,  also,  that,  in  order  to  account  for  the  dilTerences 
sejiarating  the  Negro  from  the  White,  it  is  l)y  no  means 
ncces-sary  to  have  recourse  to  ]>henomcna  of  atavism  as 
exhiliitcd  by  animals.  Simple  o.scillations,  above  or  below 
the  mean  in  the  normal  evolution  of  man,  an;  sufKcient  to 
explain  it.  I  feel  myself,  tliereforc,  still  more  strongly 
ju.-.tiru-d  in  opposing  the  humtin  evolution  theory  to  the 
HUnian  rrolnt'um  (liioi'i/. 

Th«!  zygojn;itic  mchrs,  the  malar  bone,  the  sujxrior  and 
inferior  maxillary  bones  al.so  furnish  the  anthropologist  with 
Kcvrral  more  or  less  essential  characters  which  sometimes 
ncijuirc,  in  reference  to  a  given  race,  a  valiir  sujMrior  to  that 
whi(.li  tljoy  have  elsewher«'.  Such  is  the  slight  ch'vation  of 
the  ivtbdinc  luiult  in  the   I/ipps.     But  I  ainnot  here  enter 


Ostcological  Characters — Facial  Angle.      393 

into  these  details,  nnd  refer  the  reader  to  special  books  and 
memoirs. 

IV.  C/i"r>(<'frrs  drxroi  from  the  f^ku/l  consiJircd.  as  a 
whole.  When,  instead  of  studying  the  face  or  cranium  alone, 
we  coiisiilcr  them  in  their  reciprocal  relation.s,  we  see  new 
traits  appearing,  furnishing  a  numhor  of  characters,  some  of 
which  are  of  real  importance. 

Let  us,  in  the  first  i>lace,  remark  that  there  may  be  either 
hiinnony  or  <hjxharmony  between  these  two  great  regions. 
The  skull  is  harmonic  in  the  Negro,  whose  cranium  and  face 
are  equally  long,  and  in  the  Mongol,  who  unites  the  two 
contrary  characters;  it  is  dysharmonic,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the 
old  man  of  Cro-Magnon,  and  in  the  man  of  La  Truch6re,  but 
for  contrary  reasons, 

Cuvier  endeavoured  to  find  the  relation  of  the  skull  and 
the  face  by  making  an  antero-posterior  section  of  the  skull, 
and  directly  me:vsuring  the  surfaces  of  the  section.  He  found 
that  in  the  White  the  face  represented  about  0  25  of  the 
skull,  030  in  the  Yellow,  and  O-iO  in  the  Black.  These 
results  entirely  accord  with  those  furnished  by  the  study  of 
prognathism. 

This  relative  difference  of  the  development  of  the  face  led 
Camper  to  the  conception  of  his  celebrated  facial  angle. 
Struck  by  seeing  painters  represent  Negroes  as  Whites 
painted  black,  he  studied  the  anatomical  characters  of  the 
skull,  and  gave,  a.s  the  propor  distinction,  tin-  angle  formed 
by  two  lines  ;  the  one  pas.sing  from  the  auditory  canal  to 
the  root  of  the  nose,  the  otlier  tangential  to  the  foreheatl 
and  to  the  na.sal  bone,  both  being  represented  upon  a  verti- 
cal projection  of  the  model.  Cam2>er  made  use  of  his 
method  to  distinguish  between  the  products  of  Greek  ami 
Roman  art.  He  thus  represented  a  dccrea.sing  scale  from 
the  Works  of  art  in  statuar}'  to  non-adidt  apes.  I  repro- 
duce it,  not  because  of  its  real  value,  but  on  account  of 
the  importance  which  has  been  attributed  to  it.  Tho 
following  are  the  variations  of  the  facial  angle,  according  to 
Camper : 


394 


7' he  1 1 11 1)1  an  Species. 


Greek  statues 

^ 

.    uxr 

Yellow  race  .        .        .        . 

7.V 

Roman  statues 

^         ^ 

uri" 

Hlai'k  race          .         .     •    .     . 

70 

White  race  . 

. 

so" 

Younj;  apes  (superior  type) . 

65 

CiCofTruy  Saint-IIihiirc  and  Cuvicr,  M.  Jules  Cloquet  and 
JjiO(iuaid  have  adopted  different  methods  in  determining  the 
facial  anj^le.  Morton,  Jacquard,  and  ^f.  Broca  have  invented 
instruments  for  measuring  it  directly.  M.  Topinard,  after 
having  examined  the  several  methods,  gives,  vith  justice,  his 
opinion  in  favour  of  that  of  Cloquet,  which  places  the  upper 
extremity  of  the  angle  at  the  alveolar  border.  M.  Jacquard 
had  chosen  the  nasal  spine,  remarking  at  the  same  time  that 
the  difference  l)et\vecn  the  two  angles  might  be  of  service  in 
the  calculation  of  prognathism. 

Camper,  or  rather  those  who  have  followed  him,  wished  to 
consider  the  size  of  the  facial  angle  as  a  sign  of  superior  in- 
tellectual power.  His  graduated  scale  has  evidently  given 
ri.se  to  this  false  idea.  Pathological  facts  should  have 
sufficed  to  show  how  great  was  the  error.  The  work  of 
Jac(juard  ha.s,  moreover,  established  this  fact  beyond  a  doubt. 
Thi.s  author  has  proved  a  difference  of  more  than  1G°  in  the 
educated  White  of  Paris,  that  is  to  say,  G'  more  than  the 
distance  established  by  Camper  as  separating  the  Negro 
from  the  White.  Jac«iuard,  again,  lias  proved  in  the  French 
race  the  existence  of  an  angle  of  DO'',  an  angle  which  Camper 
believed  to  ]>elong  only  to  the  iileal  representations  of  the 
human  form.  Now  this  remarkable  angular  superiority  was 
by  no  means  accompanied  by  an  exceptional  intelligence. 

If  we  pass  from  the  psychological  to  the  anatomical  mean- 
ing I  shall  have  similar  remarks  to  make.  There  has  been 
much  discussion  as  to  the  position  of  the  uj»per  extremity  of 
the  facial  line,  which,  with  the  horizontal  line,  forms  the 
angle  of  Camper.  It  has  been  thought  desirable  to  avoid 
the  frontal  sinuses,  nnd  to  seek  in  the  facial  angle  indications 
relative  to  tin;  dimensions  of  the  encephalon,  and  not  those  of 
(ivy  fHiiiirular  hoiif.  I  think,  on  the  contrary,  that  we  must 
l)C  content  with  the  latter,  and  not  go  further.  It  is  evident 
that  the  dimensions  of  tiie  encephalon  are  indcpend-'iit  of  the 


Oshvhoical  CJiaracicrs—  Parietal  A)io/c.    395 

position  of  the  frontiil  jioint,  and  tliat  it  may  be  more  or  less 
cxtciulfd  to  tlio  right,  left,  or  beliind  this  j)()iut  without  the 
facial  angle  being  afl'ectod  in  any  manner  whatever. 

The  exact  determination  of  the  means  of  the  facial  angle 
will  still,  however,  be  valuable,  like  all  those  which  it  is 
];ossible  to  calculate  upon  the  human  body,  provided  there 
is  a  sufficient  distance  between  these  means.  But  M. 
Toj)inard  has  shown  that  this  ditference  is  not  more  than 
three  degrees.  Withotit  altogi.'ther  renouncing  the  ideas  of 
Camper,  we  see  that  science  now  has  characters  preferable  to 
those  which  he  discovered. 

A  more  important  angle  is  the  anlerlov  imridal  amjle, 
formed  on  both  sides  of  the  skull  by  two  lines  tangential  to 
the  most  prominent  point  of  the  zygomatic  arch,  and  to  the 
fronto-parietal  suture.  By  taking  the  most  prominent  point 
of  the  parietal  eminences  as  the  second  extremity,  we  obtain 
the  potitevior  imrietal  aiujle.  Prichard  applied  tlie  term  pyra- 
midal skulls  to  those  in  which  these  lines  converged.  1  have 
endeavoured  to  measure  the  angle  directly  with  an  instru- 
ment of  my  own  invention,  and  my  first  researches  have  led 
me  to  results  which  I  believe  to  be  interesting.  The  angle 
is  sometimes  w  ide,  sometimes  narrow,  and  may  be  altogether 
wanting  when  the  two  tangents  are  parallel.  It  is,  then, 
sometimes  positive,  sometimes  negative.  Tlie  latter  is  the 
case  in  the  fatus  and  infants  of  all  races.  The  negative 
angle  is  also  met  with  in  adults.  This  trait  appeai-s  to  have 
been  very  striking  in  Cuvier,  judging  from  a  fine  portrait  of 
the  great  naturalist  when  still  young.  I  have  found  it  to 
be  —  18^  and  —  22*^  in  two  living  pci-sons,  l)oth  remarkable 
for  their  intelligence.  The  positive  maximum  which  I  ob- 
served upon  an  Esquimaux  cranium  w;vs  -|-  14^  I  have  em- 
j)loyed  this  character  in  my  course  of  lectures  to  complete  the 
charactcrizatioD  of  a  great  number  of  races,  but  have  never 
published  any  details. 

M.  Topinard  has  just  filled  this  gap  in  a  work  which  con- 
firms, and  at  the  same  time,  completes  all  my  first  residt.s. 
His  researches,  bearing  solely  upon  skulls,  have  given  him 


39^  The  Hjunaji  Species. 

as  limits  of  indiviclual  variations,  5°  and  +  30°;  as  limits  of 
the  means,  +  2°-5  and  -f  'iO'S.  lie  f.)un<l  in  the  New  Cale- 
donians tl)e  most  pyramidal  heads.  Finally,  he  has  seen  in 
children  from  the  age  of  four  months  to  sixteen  years,  the 
angle  decreasing  from  —  1^  to  0°  and  rise  to  7". 

Thus  the  negative  parietal  angle  in  the  adult  is  nothing 
more  than  a  persistent  fcetal  or  infantile  character.  It  is 
evidently  the  result  of  a  cessation  of  dcvcloivnod,  or  rather, 
a  cessation  of  evolution.  Now,  we  have  just  seen  that  this 
character  may  exist  in  individuals  endowed  with  an  intelli- 
gence above  the  average,  and  even  in  men  of  genius.  A 
cessation  of  evolution,  the  persistent  trace  of  a  foetal  or 
infantile  condition,  is  not,  therefore,  necessarily  a  character 
of  infcrioritt/  either  in  individuals  or  races. 

Two  general  views  of  the  skull  belong  to  the  subject  now 
under  examination.  Bhimenbach  regarded  and  represented 
the  human  skull  from  al)ove.  This  is  the  norma  veriicalis, 
very  viduable  as  permitting  the  appreciation  of  the  general 
form  of  the  cranium  and  some  of  its  relations  with  the  pro- 
jections of  the  face.  Owen  has,  so  to  speak,  regarded  it  from 
below,  and  insisted  upon  the  dilferences  which  the  inferi«)r 
surface  otTcrs  between  man  and  the  highest  types  of  apes. 
Many  characters  of  detail  are  brought  to  light  by  these  two 
methods  which  I  cannot  even  mentitju  here. 

In  this  necessarily  very  incomplete  sketch,  I  have  been 
obliged  to  pass  by  in  silence  a  largo  number  of  characters 
which  are  often  of  a  very  substantial  importance.  The 
greater  number  are  (obtained  by  the  methoil  of  projections 
so  ingeniou.sly  perfected  by  M.  Broca,  and  by  mean.s  of 
instrumentH,  some  of  which  wore  already  in  existence,  such 
iiH  the  diigraph,  and  others  invented  by  various  savants, 
amongst  whom  we  uuist,  again,  especially  mention  M.  Broca. 

V.  Shelclitn  of  the  truuk     I    have  dwelt  at  some  length 

unon  the  characters  drawn  from  the  skolcton  of  the  head  ;  I 

....  * 

shall  be  more  brief  in   di.scu.ssing  the   other  regions.     Ihey 

furnish  characters  perhaps  ejjually  iniportant,  but  they  have 

been  much  less  studied,  and  the  faidt  does  not  altog<'th'r  li<' 


Ostcological  Characters — Trunk.  397 

with  anthropologists.  It  is  not  easy  to  procure  skulls  of  the 
human  races,  even  ■wIk-u  wc  have  to  do  >vith  pujjulations 
living  close  to  us  ;  the  difficulty  of  collecting  a  certain  nundier 
of  entire  skeletons  is  far  greater. 

The  thoracic  cage  presents  some  interesting  facts  siiffi- 
«'iently  well  proved.  In  consecjucnce  of  the  form  of  the 
-temum,  the  greater  or  less  curvature  of  the  ribs,  it  is 
generally  broad  anil  flattened  in  the  White,  narrow  and 
pronunent  in  the  Negro  and  the  Bosjesman.  According  to 
d'Orbigny,  it  is  stil  more  prominent  in  certain  Americans. 
An  analogous  fact  has  been  observed  in  some  populations  of 
Asia  Minor. 

The  pelvis  is  the  portion  of  the  trunk  whieh  has  been 
most  thoroughly  studied,  by  reason  of  the  application  which 
may  be  made  of  these  researches  to  obstetri&s.  As  a  rule, 
comparisons  have  been  limited  to  those  between  the  Negro 
and  the  White.  Vrolick,  Weber,  MM.  Joulin,  Pruner  Bey, 
anil,  quite  recently,  M.  Verneau,  have  gone  much  further. 
The  latter,  unfortunately,  has  not  yet  published  his  researjches 
relatively  to  the  distin(;tion  of  races.  Vrolick  insisted  upon 
some  peculiarities  of  the  pelvis  of  the  Hottentot  Venus,  and 
endeavoured  to  establish  certain  relations  between  lur  and 
the  ape. 

Weber  found  that  in  each  of  the  races  whieh  he  had 
studieil,  the  pelvis  presented  a  predominant  form,  which,  on 
that  account  alone,  became  characteristic.  He  regartled  the 
inlet  as  being  generally  oval  and  of  large  transverse  diameter 
in  the  White  ;  (juadrilateral  and  of  large  transvense  dian»eter 
in  the  Mongol ;  round,  and  of  cipial  diameters,  in  tho 
American  ;  cuneiform  and  of  large  antero-posterior  diameter 
in  Negroes. 

M.  Joulin  has  di.sputed  nearly  all  the  propositions  of 
Vrolick  arid  Weber,  and  seems  unwilling  to  allow  any 
characteristic  value  to  the  pelvis.  M.  Pruner  Bey  has  shown 
without  difficulty  the  great  exaggeration  of  this  view,  ami 
has  determined  the  characters  which  distinguish,  from  this 
point  of  view,  the  White  from  the  Black. 


398  The  Hit  in  an  Species. 

The  work  of  M,  Yerneaii,  much  more  complete  than  those 
of  his  predecessors,  but  with  the  anatomical  part  of  which 
we  are  at  present  alone  ac(|uaintctl,  will  uneloubtetlly  throw 
some  lii(ht  on  the  (piestions  raised  by  their  controversies. 
At  present,  moreover,  the  work  of  M.  Verneaii  confirms  the 
assertions  of  the  greater  number  of  his  predecessors,  as  to 
the  reality  of  the  characters  of  race  to  be  found  in  the  pelvis. 
AmonfTst  these  characters,  there  are  some  which  have 
been  pointed  out  in  the  Negro  as  indications  of  animalism. 
Even  M.  Pruner  Bey,  departing  in  this  instance  from  his 
general  practice,  employs  this  expression,  though  at  the  same 
time  restricting  its  meaning  by  his  explanations.  It  seems 
to  me  much  more  natural  to  consider  it  as  a  trace  of  a 
Condition,  normal  at  a  certain  period,  and  more  or  less  per- 
sistent according  to  the  race. 

In  fact,  the  verticality  of  the  ilia,  and  the  increa.se  of  the 
antero-posterior  diameter  of  the  pelvis  in  the  Negro,  have 
been  chiefly  insisted  upon  as  recjilling  characters  which  may 
be  observed  in  mammalia  generally,  and  particularly  in  apes. 
But    we    meet   with    the    same    anatomical    characteristics 
strongly  ])ronounced  even  in  the  fcjotus  and  children  of  the 
White.     Tljcy,  and  especially  the  latter  peculiarity,  are  per- 
sistent to  the  age  of  seven  years  or  more.     Their  existence 
in  the  Negro  is,  then,  nothing  more  than  relative  cessation 
in  the  evoluticm  of  this  region  of  the  skeleton.     It  is,  again,  a 
fw.tal  or  in  ft  nit  He  chiractcr.iiiid  not  a  character  of  ani  rnal  ism. 
VI.  Skeleton  of  the  limbs.— Whon  speaking  of  fossil  races, 
I  pointed  out  certain  mor[)hologic:d  characters  of  the  bones 
of  the  limbs,  and  among  others,  that  of  the  perforation  of  tho 
olecranon  depression.     This  character  may  bo  observed  in 
the    BoHJesman,  the  Guanches,  ancient  Egyptians,  and   our 
own   races.     It  seems  to  make   its  appearance   in  Western 
Europe    with    the    Qiiaternary   brachycephalic    r;ices.      M. 
UujxMit   met   with   it  in   the  proportion    of  thirty  per  cent, 
among  the  men  of  the   Lessc ;  according   to   M.  ilamy,  this 
proportion  is  twenty-eight   par  cent,  in  the  fossil    race    of 
(jrenelle  and  only  466  per  cent,  in  tin  present  population. 


Ostcoloirical  Characters  — L  ivibs. 


399 


I  have  alivady  observed  that  the  uppor  linib  is  a  little 
loni^'iT  in  the  Negro  than  in  the  White.  The  essential  cause 
of  this  ditforence,  is  the  relative  elongation  of  the  fore-arm. 
M.  Broca,  after  comparing  the  radius  and  humeru*;  of  the 
two  races,  gives  7i)-43  for  the  Negro,  and  73-82  for  the 
European.  M.  Hamy,  who  had  more  numerous  materials  at 
his  disposal,  and  followed  a  somewhat  different  method  of 
measurement,  obtained  as  result  T-S-O^  and  7-19. 

This  elongation  of  the  radius,  relatively  greater  in  the 
Negro  than  in  the  White,  is  one  of  the  traits  to  which  the 
expression  ttimian  character  has  been  most  frequently 
applied,  Wc  know,  in  fact,  that  there  is  less  inc(iuality 
between  the  two  regions  of  the  arm  in  the  anthropomorphous 
apos  than  in  man,  and  that  in  the  orang  the  length  of  the 
radius  ecjuals  that  of  the  humerus. 

The  researches  of  M.  Hamy  enable  us  to  consider  this 
peculiarity  of  the  Negro  from  an  entirely  human  and  truer 
point  of  view.  This  anthmpologist  has  followed  the  evolution 
of  this  limb  with  a  view  of  obtaining  the  changes  which  it 
involves  in  the  relation  under  consideration.  The  following 
table  gives  the  results  of  these  investiirations  : 


Kiiibryo  (»f  24  innnths  .         .  88-8S 

Ktjctus  of  :i — 4  niontlis  .     .  84-Oy 

„       „    4 — '>  iiKiiitlis  .         .  8<>42 

„       „    C — 7  months  .     .  77'CiS 

M       n    8 — y  muuilia  .         .  77J7 


Infants  of    1  —  lOdnys    . 

.  7fi-20 

„        „     11— 20  (la'vH 

.  74-78 

„    21— ;{0dny8    . 

.  74 -51 

„        „    2  montliH    . 

.  7.1-03 

„        „    0  months  to  2  yrc. 

.  72-4fi 

„    5  mouths  to  l;!i  yrs.  7230 


V/e  see  that  in  the  development  of  the  upper  limb  in  man, 
there  is  a  constant  tenilency  to  diminish  the  relation  in 
(pieslion.  We  see  also  that  the  average  of  the  Negro  is 
almost  that  of  a  white  fuitus  of  five  months.  In  his  case, 
therefore,  the  elongation  of  the  railius  may  be  explained 
(juite  naturally  by  an  arrest  of  evolution,  without  giving  any 
occasion  for  comparing  him  with  apes.  Under  what  pretext 
should  we  return  to  the  simian  theory  in  connection  with 
this  character,  after  having  seen  that  it  is  inapplicable  in  so 
many  othei*s  ? 

18 


400 


The  Htnnan  Species. 


The  lower  member  presents  similar  facts.  According  to 
the  calculations  borrowed  by  M.  Topiuard  from  M.  Broca,  the 
tibia,  when  compared  with  tiie  femur,  gives  a  relation  of  8r33 
for  the  Negro,  and  71)  72  for  the  White. 

By  adding  the  figures  which  express  the  length  of  the 
nidius  and  humerus,  we  have  the  total  length  of  tiie  whole 
arm,  with  the  exception  of  the  hand  ;  and  by  acting  in  the 
same  manner  for  the  femur  and  tibia,  we  have  that  of  the 
lower  member,  with  the  exception  of  the  foot. 

The  relation  of  the  former  to  the  latter  is  GvS-27  in  tlio 
Negro,  and  61)73  in  the  White. 

Tiie  following  is  a  table  of  several  races,  drawn  up  by 
M.  Topinard  from  his  own  researches  and  those  of  several 
other  authors : 


Relation  of  the 

Relation  of  the  Relation  of  the 

Races, 

inf.  to  the 

Kiiiur  tci  tlic      tiltia  to  the 

hUl).  member. 

huiui-rua.             femur. 

Annamitcs        .... 

r,7r> 

7r,-7 

(17-r. 

TiiKninitiaiiH          ,         .         .     . 

G8-2 

**:$•.-) 

84  a 

Ai-noH 

Ik)HJcsmanR      •        •        •        • 

CS-4 

7r.-2 

7f.S 

Andaman  IslandtiH     .        .    . 

7():i 

7'.»!) 

81-X 

AiistralianH       .... 

7(t-7 

7."r(; 

7(;i) 

UlucM  of  rondicbciy  .        .    . 

71-7 

b2'J 

844 

• 

We  sec  that,  by  thisdianictcr,  tlie  Kurttpeau  NN'hite  is  placed 
between  the  African  Negro  and  the  Andaman  Islander. 

1  have  already  mentioned  some  remarkable  morj)hological 
modifications,  such  as  the  prominence;  of  the  lii»eaasj)era  in  the 
femur,  the  platycnemism  of  the  tibia,  etc.  1  need  not  repeat 
them,  'i'he  clavicle,  f(»ot  ami  hand,  also  suggest  many  detiiil.s 
which  I  nniHt  iia.sH  by  in  silence.  I  shall  only  observe  that  in 
Abyssinia  it  is  neither  by  his  coloiir  n(tr  his  hair  that  the  true 
Negro  is  prov<'d  to  be  characterised,  but  merely  by  the  rela- 
tively exaggerated  promin(;nce  of  the  heel.  But  this  sign,  which 
ha-s  been  a.sscrted  to  Ik)  infallil)le,  is  wanting  in  certain  Negro 


Anatomical  Characters — Brain.  401 

raois,  not  only  in  the  Yoloffs,  whose  inferior  member  rc- 
sejnblcs  our  own,  hut  also  in  the  Bambaras,  who  have  a.  jhit 
foot. 

VII.  C/iarncterfi  draivn  from  the  aoft  port lo  118  ;  nervous 
tii/sfrni.  After  liavini^f  examined  the  external  fornis  of  the 
l>o«lv,  and  reviewed  the  skeleton,  we  must  take  the  oriranic 
apparatus  one  by  one,  and  study  thera  in  their  turn.  Un- 
fortunately the  facts  collected  are  here  still  more  rare,  when 
the  observatittns  should  have  been  in  larm-r  numbers  in  onler 
U)  give  a  definite  value  to  the  results.  This  study,  which 
lijus  been  scarcely  commenced,  has  in  reality  only  been 
brought,  till  the  present  time,  to  bear  upon  the  two  most 
distant  terms  of  the  human  series  :  the  European  White  and 
the  African  Negro.  This  alone  will  justify  me  in  giving  a 
very  cui-sory  exposition  of  the  results  obtained. 

The  nervous  system,  of  which  Cuvier  has  said  that  it  is 
the  entire  animal,  is  fortunately  the  part  about  which  we 
possess,  perhaps,  the  greatest  number  of  comparative  data. 
In  the  first  place,  we  meet  with  a  general  fact  noticed  b}' 
Soemmering,  and  which  is  established  beyond  a  tloubt  by 
the  splendid  preparations  of  Jacquard,  exhibited  in  the 
galleries  of  the  Paris  Musotiin.  Rtlatively  to  the  White, 
the  Negro  presents  a  marke«l  predominance  of  peripheral 
nervous  expansions.  The  trunks  are  thicker,  and  the  fibres 
more  numerous,  or  perhaps  merely  ca.sier  to  isolate,  and  to 
preserve  on  account  of  their  volume  alone.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  cerebral  centres,  or  at  lea.st  the  brain,  appiar  to  be 
inferior  in  development 

In  fact,  in  spite  of  what  Blumcnbach  and  Tiedmann  have 
said  on  this  subject,  the  brain  of  the  Negro  i.s,  as  a  general 
rule,  less  voluminous  than  that  of  the  White.  This  fact  is 
chielly  the  resp.lt,  it  is  true,  of  mea.surements  of  the  capacity 
of  crania.  But  determinations  of  the  weight  confirm  this 
result. 

Seven  Negro  brains  weighed  by  il.  Broca  gave  a  mean 
of  iJilG  grin.  (4G  42  oz.).  Upon  uniting  the  weights  of 
European  brains  I  find,  however,  a  mean  of  only  12tH  gnu. 


402  TJi€  IIuDian  Species. 

(4402  oz.),  tliat  is  almost  exactly  the  average  of  the  White 
woman.  The  average  weight  of  ailult  European  brains 
is  1405  MS  grm.  (4I)oy  oz).  But  in  both  races,  individual 
oscillations  are  very  considerable.  One  of  the  skulls  of  the 
Black  race  examined  by  M.  Broca  weighed  1500  grm. 
(52!)1  oz.) ;  Mascagni  had  one  of  15S7  grm.  (5594  oz.),  and 
another  of  only  738  grm.  (26  03  oz.). 

The  truth  is  that  the  European  White  alone  has  been 
seriously  examined  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  estimation 
of  cerebral  development  by  weight.  The  merit  of  having 
furnished  the  elements  of  this  study  belongs  incontestably  to 
llud.  Wagner.  Uniting  the  far  more  impttrtant  results  of  his 
own  researches  with  those  of  Tiedmann,  Sims,  Parchappe, 
Lelut,  Hu.schke  and  Bcrgmann,  this  savant  drew  up  a  table 
containing  tlie  weight  of  J)(i4  brain.s,  which  had  been  directly 
obtiiined  after  removing  the  coverings  ;  he  arranged  them  in 
order,  commencing  with  the  heaviest  and  finishing  with  the 
li'ditest.  liut  he  had  not  taken  circumstances  of  sex,  afje, 
health,  disea.se,  etc.,  into  consideration.  The  results  which 
he  obtained  were,  therefore,  subject  to  alterations  and  correc- 
tions. M.  Broca  ha.s  accomplished  this  ta.sk.  He  took  347 
ca.se8  of  healthy  brains  from  Wagner's  table,  and  carried  out 
his  investigations  entirely  upon  them. 

A  certain  number  of  general  propositions  ri.se  fmm  all 
these  researches,  which  may  be  fornudated  in  the  f<»llowing 
manner  : 

1.  Under  similar  circumstances,  in  other  respects,  the 
wt  i;;ht  of  the  brain  varies  j)roportionately,  or  almost  pro- 
portionately, to  the  height.  According  to  Parchappe,  the 
average  weight  of  the  brains  of  two  groups  of  men  with  an 
average  height  i>f  174  mi.'tre  (57  feet)  and  1  ■(13  metro 
(5-2  feet),  was  WVM)  grm.  (4(;-!H  oz.),  an.l  1254  grm. 
(44  23  oz.).  In  this  example  the  dilTerential  relation,  G  per 
cent.,  is  exactly  the  s.ime  for  the  hei;,dit  of  the  body  and  the 
weight  of  the  brain.  This  inlluence  of  stature  enahles  us  to 
interpret  an<l  compnhentl  the  f.uts  l)rouglit  forward  by 
Mr.  y.jn  Ifoid    Hunt.      From    the   calculations   of  this  anato- 


Anatomical  Characters — Brain.  403 

mist  it  would  appear  that  the  avcra^'e  wcij^lit  of  the  Imain 
of  Aiiglo-Aincrican  soldiers  exceeds  the  averairc  Avei'dit  of 
hurnp«-ati  hrams  a-s  detluced  from  Wagner's  tables,  by  from 
19  to  1 -J.  jjrms.  (GT  to  -49  oz.),  or  from  1-33  to  '99  per  cent, 
liut  tlio  American  anatomist  did  not  take  into  consideration 
the  ditVerence  iu  stature,  whicli  he  nevertheless  notice^. 
NoNv,  from  his  calculations,  it  appears  that  American  soldiers 
have,  in  this  respect,  the  advantage  over  Frencli  and  English 
soldiers  to  an  extent  of  3  per  cent.  The  increase  is,  there- 
fore, only  apparent,  and,  indeed,  rather  points  to  a  relative 
diminution. 

'1.  Under  similar  circumstances  in  other  respects,  the 
f.inale  brain  weighs  a  little  less  than  the  male.  M.  Broca 
li;is  shown  that  this  is  the  case  at  all  periods  of  life.  This 
ditferencc  appears  to  me,  however,  to  arise  almost  exclusively 
from  that  of  the  stature  of  the  body.  Upon  taking  the 
woman  a.s  the  term  of  comparison,  and  representing  her 
heiglit  and  the  weight  of  her  brain  by  100,  we  find  109  43 
and  109-34  jx-s  (he  result  for  the  man.  The  latter  relation  is 
that  given  by  Parchappe.  M.  Broca  found  I09G3  ;  thus  the 
relative  heights  are  intermediary. 

3.  The  maximum  average  of  the  European  is  observed  be- 
tween the  thirtieth  and  fortieth  years.  It  is  then  1202  crms, 
(4  4-48  oz.)  in  the  female,  and  1410  3(5  grms.  (49-74  oz.)  in  the 
male,  or.  in  percentages,  100  and  11 1"?.  The  average  for  the 
entire  period  of  maturity,  between  30  and  .iO,  is  140.j88  grms. 
(49  .')9  oz.)  in  the  male,  and  liGl-.")  grm.s.  (44.5  oz.)  in  the  female. 

4.  Beyond  this  maximum  the  weight  of  the  brain  appears 
to  decrease  continually,  and  in  a  mure  or  less  constant 
manner.  Such,  at  least,  is  tlie  result  arising  from  calcula- 
tions bearing  upon  decennial  intervals,  which  show  a  con- 
stantly decreiising  average  in  the  male,  as  well  as  in  the 
t\ male.  There  is  probably  some  relation  between  this  dimi- 
nution and  that  of  the  horizontal  circumference  of  the 
cranium  and  the  development  of  the  frontal  sinuses,  observed 
long  ago  by  Camper. 

5.  In  the  European  White,  a  brain,  to  be  capible  of  per- 


404  TJie  Human  Species. 

forming  its  functions,  must  Aveigh  at  least  975  grms.  (34"3i)  oz.) 
in  the  female,  and  1133  grms.  (301)0  oz.)  in  the  male.  These 
figures  are  the  result  of  the  discu.ssion  upon  Wagner's  table  ; 
they  are,  however,  too  high,  to  judge  from  some  of  Hunt's 
calculations.  In  the  Bosjesman  and  Australian,  and  pro- 
bably in  many  other  races,  the  weight  of  the  brain  may 
descend  as  low  as  1)07  grms.  (31  99  oz.),  without  the  in- 
tellectual faculties  being  destroyed. 

Let  us  add  that  this  organ  may,  moreover,  fall  much  below 
this  weight  without  causing  cessation  of  life,  or  even  the 
absolute  disappearance  of  the  intelligence,  as  in  some  micro- 
cephalL  The  smallest  brains  which  have  ever  been  weighed 
are  those  of  Teite,  quoted  by  Wagner,  300  grms.  (10"58  oz.),  and 
that  of  the  woman  who  formed  the  subject  of  a  memoir  by 
Gore,  28375  grms.  (10  oz.).  These  brains  are  appreciably 
inferior  in  weight  to  those  of  the  gorilla  and  orang. 

n.  In  the  European  White,  the  jua.vinium  weight  of  a 
healthy  brain  perhaps  reaches  2231  grins.  (78(j9  oz.)  {(^roni- 
well),  or  even  2238  grms.  (7894  oz.)  (Byron).  But  there  is 
not  the  certainty  we  should  wish  for  about  these  figures. 
The  weight  of  Cuvier's  brain  is,  however,  attested  by  the 
post-mortem  examination  conducted  by  Professor  Bdrard  ; 
it  is  1829  f)fi  grms.  (0843  oz.).  Mr.  Sandford  Htmt  cpiotes 
aiKither  at  1842  grm.s.  ((I.")  32  oz.).  We  may  regard  these 
figures  as  indicating  the  superior  limit  wliich  can  be  attained 
by  the  brain  in  the  White  race  without  the  gt-ncral  health 
ajipfaring  to  be  afViM-tcd. 

The  fignires  obtained  by  .Mr.  Hunt  f\n\i\  tin-  calcidations 
given  by  several  authors  for  27<'^  brains  of  I^urojx'au  Whites 
ugrec  Hutticirntly  will  with  the  aljove.  'J'lu.'  average  of  the 
former  is  1403  gnn.s.  (49"55  oz.).  I'he  nwiximtun  is  that 
<|Uot<d  above,  1842  grms.  (0497  oz.)  ;  the  minimum  falls  to 
IM)3  grms.  (33*97  (>'/..),  which  is  very  remarkable  from  its 
lightness,  being  below  that  which,  in  Wagner's  table,  seems 
to  involve  idiotey.  The  results  obtained  by  Mr.  Hunt  upon 
his  Black  an<l  Whit<^  fellow-countrymen,  present,  as  regards 
comparison,  a  special  interest.      The  brains  of  twenty-four 


Anatomical  Characters — Weight  of  Brain.  405 

American  White  soldiers  {rave  an  avcrajje  weijilit  of  1424  irrms. 
(432  oz.)  in  round  numbers.  Tlic  maximum  was  1S14  grms. 
(G3i)S  oz.);  the  miuimuui  1247  grms.  (431)8  oz.).  The 
brains  of  141  Negroes  gave  an  average  of  1331  grms. 
(4Gi)8  oz.),  which  is  greater  than  the  results  of  investigations 
made  in  Europe.  The  ma.ximum  was  1507  grms.  (.5315  oz.); 
the  minimum  1013  grms.  (35*73  oz.). 

The  observations  of  Mr.  Hunt  upon  240  cro.sscs  between 
the  W])ite  and  tlio  Negro  lead  to  interesting  conclusions 
The  following:  is  the  result : 


grms.        OS. 

In  crosses  having  J  white  blood,  the  average  weight  of  the  brain  is  131)0  49-03 

„       4  „  „  ,.  \X.\\.  47(».-, 

„      \         „  „  „  i:ti-j  4r,-.-,2 

„        4  „  „  „  i:it»8  4G13 

„       h  «  «  „  l-'80  44-7a 


Wc  see  that  tiic  weight  of  the  brain  diminishes  propor- 
tionately with  the  white  blood.  But  it  is  especially  curious 
to  observe,  that  in  crosses  still  po.ssessing  a  tolerably  strong 
proportion  of  superior  blood,  the  weight  falls  below  that  of 
pure  Negroes.  The  average  was  taken  from  twenty-two 
individuals,  and  the  difference,  86  grms.  (303  oz.),  is  too 
great  not  to  be  taken  into  .serious  consideration.  We  should 
say  that  this  is  a  phenomenon  identical  with  that  presented 
by  colouring.  Certain  crosses,  in  whom  the  bhick  blood 
predominates,  are  of  a  darker  hue  than  the  original  Negro 
race. 

To  exhaust  the  little  that  we  knt)w  of  exotic  races,  I  need 
only  to  add  that  in  a  Hottentot  cxamine<l  by  Wyman  the 
l»rain  weighed  1417  grms.  (41)  9G  oz.).  This  weight,  which 
is  greater  than  that  of  the  average  of  Europeans,  atlords  one 
more  proof  of  that  intercrossing  to  which  I  have  so  often 
called  attention,  and  which  h.os,  in  this  c.use,  perhaps  a 
ileeper  meaning  than  eUewhere. 

Since  the  publication  of  Gratiolet's  admirable  work  Sur 
Its  plii-i  ce're'bmiix  de  I'homme  et  des  primaicf,  the  study  of 
cerebral  convolutioii^  h;is  a-ssumcd  considerable  im]>ortanco 


4o6  The  IIiDiian  Species. 

in  anthropology,  although  it  has  been  somewhat  exaggerated. 
The  investigations  of  MM.  Daroste  and  Buinargcr  show  that 
the  dc'V(.'K)iJinent  of  these  conv(jlutions  depends  to  a  great 
extent  upon  that  of  the  encephalon  itself,  and  the  influence 
exercised  by  stature  at  once  explains  certain  facts  which  had 
formerly  been  the  cause  of  some  embarrassment.  Under 
conditions  similar  in  other  respects,  the  brain  of  small  rciccs 
would  be  less  convoluted  than  that  of  large  races. 

liut,  apart  from  this  influence,  it  appears  as  a  well  estab- 
lished fact,  that  in  savage  races  the  number  and  complica- 
tion of  the  cerebral  convolutions  are  Jess  than  in  intelligent 
and  civilized  races.  Intellectual  culture  would  seem  then  to 
exercise  an  entirely  special  action  upon  the  cortical  layers, 
and  to  favour  their  development. 

The  known  extremes  at  the  present  day  of  tlie  character 
in  (piestion  are  ofTcred  by  the  Hottentot  Venus  and  Cuvier. 
The  brain  of  tlie  former  is  the  simplest  that  hits  ever  been 
observed  in  au  intelligent  person.  It  recalls  that  of  an 
idiot.  The  brain  of  Cuvier,  which  \infortunately  has  neither 
been  motlelled  nor  drawn,  w:us,  as  we  are  told  by  the 
eminent  anatomists  who  saw  it,  distingui.shed  by  the  extra- 
ordinary complication  of  the  convolutions  and  the  depth  of 
the  sulci.  Moreover,  each  convolution  was,  as  it  were, 
doubled  by  a  kind  of  rounded  ridge.  In  spite  of  these 
exceptional  ca.ses,  no  one  would  stuely  dream  of  placing  the 
great  naturalist  in  any  other  species  than  that  to  which  his 
contemporaries  belong.  Neither  can  we  consider  the  simpli- 
fication of  the  brain  of  the  Hottentot  Venus  as  a  .specific 
character. 

When  comparative  observations  have  sufficiently  multi- 
plied, wc  shall  douiitless  find  more  or  less  striking  characters 
in  the  lelative  proportions  of  certain  regions  of  tlu;  brain. 
For  example,  if  I)r.  Nott's  observation  bo  correct,  the  cere- 
heUura  in  tlu;  llcd-Skin  extends  beyond  the  cerebrum,  while 
the  latter,  it  is  well  known,  extends  beyond  the  cerebellum 
in  the  White  and  Negro.  The  same  organ  is  lunger  in  llio 
Negro  and  broader  in  flic  White. 


Anatomical  Characters — Vessels,  Glands.    407 

Naturalists,  travellers,  and  anatomists  announced  lonjr  a^^o 
tliat  the  brain  of  the  Negro  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the 
White  by  its  blackish  colour.  An  experiment  performed  at 
Paris  under  the  stiperintcndcnce  of  M.  Rayer,  upon  whieli 
I  have  already  made  some  passing  remarks,  confirms  the 
general  fact.  I  have  already  observed  how  M.  Gubler,  by 
whom  it  was  prepared,  wished  to  discover  if  there  were  no 
mean  terms.  He  examined  the  colouring  of  brains  obtained 
from  individuals,  all  belonging  to  the  White  race,  but  whose 
complexions  were  diflFerently  coloured,  and  proved  that  the 
internal  colourijig  wa.s  in  direct  relation  with  the  external. 
In  fair  individuals  with  blue  eyes  and  a  pink  and  white 
skin,  the  pigment  .seemed  to  be  entirely  wanting.  In  indi- 
viduals with  a  brown  skin,  black  hair,  and  a  very  dark  iris, 
"  nut  only  the  brain  enveloped  by  its  membranes  assumes  a 
deeper  shade,  but  a  layer  of  black  matter,  in  every  way 
comparable  to  that  of  the  Negro,  covers  the  protuberance, 
the  pineal  gland,  and  some  other  points  of  the  nervous 
centres," 

Thus,  internally,  as  well  as  externally,  the  ci>louring  of 
tissues  presents  that  gra<luated  series  to  which  I  have  .so 
often  called  attention.  This  removes,  therefore,  the  abso- 
lute nature  which  had  been  attributed  to  a  peculiarity 
which  had  so  often  been  insisteil  upon  as  sej)arating  the 
Negro  from  the  White,  to  the  extent  i>f  making  him  a  dis- 
tinct species. 

VIII.  Vascular  and  rci*plratory  systems.  Considered  as 
a  whole,  the  vascular  system  of  the  Black  and  that  of  the 
Wliitc  present  facts  somewhat  similar  to  tho.sc  which  we 
have  ob.served  in  the  nervous  system.  According  to  Pruner 
Hey,  the  venous  system  jiredominates  visibly  over  the 
arterial  in  the  Black  ;  and  here,  again,  the  admirable  pre- 
l>a rations  of  Jacquard  arc  a  material  proof  of  the  correctness 
of  the  <»bservation.s  of  the  .savant  I  have  just  quoted.  This 
predominance  seems  to  extend  to  the  right  cavities  of  the 
heart. 

The  lungs  are  h  ss   developed    in   the  Negro  than  in  ihe 


4o8  The  Human  Species.    _^ 

Wliitc.  M.  Primer  Bey  has  observed  cases  in  which  tlicy 
seem  to  be  pressed  upwards  by  the  abdominal  viscera.  The 
characters  peculiar  to  the  blood  of  the  Negro,  which  Avere 
noticed  in  a  preceding  cliapter,  will,  perhaps,  at  some  future 
time,  be  connected  with  this  group  of  anatomical  conditions. 
We  have  already  seen  that  tlie  cutaneous  glandular  system 
is  more  developed  in  the  Negro  than  in  the  White.  The  in- 
vestigations of  M.  Pruner  Bey  demonstrate  that  the  same  fact 
reappears  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  intestinal  canal, 
the  surface  of  which  is  everywhere  marked  by  the  prominence 
of  secreting  organs,  especially  in  the  stomach  and  colon.  The 
large  glands  wliich  are  connected  with  the  alimentary  canal 
are  also  remarkably  developed,  particidarly  the  liver.  The 
case  is  also  the  same  with  the  siipra-rcnal  capsules.  All  these 
organs  are  in  a  constant  state  of  venous  hyperemia.  Finally, 
these  intestinal  mucous  membranes  are  very  thick,  and  pre- 
sent the  appearance  of  adipose  tissue.  Facts  of  a  similar 
nature  will  perhaps  be  observed  in  the  greater  number  of 
intertropical  races.  We  already  know  that  in  the  Javanese 
the  liver  is  as  fully  developed  as  in  the  Negro. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL    CIIAUACTERS. 


I.  The  special  history  of  human  races  presents  a  consider- 
able uunihor  of  interesting  physiological  facts  which  are 
sufficiently  different  and  well  marked,  to  serve  as  dis- 
tinctive characters.  We  find  in  the  tropics  peoples  re- 
markably abstemious,  and  living  entirely  upon  vegetables, 
without  their  organism  being  injuriously  affected  ;  in  the 
polar  regions  there  are  others  who  eat  fat  in  quantities 
which  would  be  rejected  by  our  digestive  organs ;  there  are 
also  some  slight  variations  between  the  respiration,  circula- 
tion, animal  temperature,  secretions,  etc.  of  the  White  man 
and  the  Negi'o;  the  muscular  energy  and  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  employed,  sometimes  vary  considerably  in  different 
races  ;  general  sensibility,  and  consequently  aptitude  for  feel- 
ing pain,  are  very  unequally  developed.  The  same  surgical 
operation  will  not  cause  as  much  pain  to  a  Chinese  as  to  a 
European. 

But  the  greater  number  of  these  traits  arise  from  pecu- 
liarities which  do  not  belong  to  general  considerations.  Many 
are  the  rcsnlt  of  anterior  facts,  and  are  connected  with  con- 
ditions of  life,  habit,  etc.,  sometimes  even  with  beliefs  and  in- 
stitutions. Even  if  we  confined  ourselves  to  a  mere  .sketch, 
we  shouM  have  to  enter  into  details  incompatible  with  the 
plan  of  this  book,  if  wo  wi.shcd  to  di.scu.ss  all  these  ipiestions. 
I  shall,  therefore,  here  confine  myself  to  pointing  out  some 
general  phenomena  to  justify  the  above  statement.^. 

II.  I  will,  in  the  fii-st  place,  say  a  few  words  upon  certain 
facts  and  ideas  which  have  often  been  the  occi-ion  c.f  .•mi- 


4IO  The  Human  Species. 

mated  discussion.  I  mean  the  degree  of  relation  adnii.ssible 
between  the  development  of  the  intelligence  and  that  of  the 
brain.  This  question  may  .seem  at  first  sight  to  belong  al- 
most entirely  to  the  study  of  the  individual.  But,  from  the 
manner  in  which  it  has  been  applied  to  the  appreciation  of 
the  intellectual  power  of  races,  it  has  acquired  a  real  interest 
in  general  anthropology. 

On  no  occasion,  perhaps,  has  this  question  been  treated 
more  thoroughly  and  by  more  competent  judges  than  by  the 
Paris  Anthropological  Society  in  the  great  discussion  of  18(»1. 
Many  speakers  took  part  in  it,  but  the  two  principal  cham- 
pions of  the  rival  doctrines  were  Gratiolet  on  the  one  hand, 
and  M.  Broca  upon  the  other.  Some  of  their  statements,  if 
taken  literally,  would  lead  us  to  imagine  that  an  iinpa.s.sablc 
gulf  lay  between  them.  If,  however,  we  read  them  again, 
after  the  excitement  of  the  moment  has  pa.s.sed  away,  we 
find,  from  the  summaries  which  they  themselves  have  drawn 
up,  that  such  is  by  no  means  the  case,  and  that,  far  from  their 
being  divided  in  principle,  it  woidd  not  be  diflicult  to  effect 
an  understanding  between  them. 

(Jratiolet  considers  "that  power  which  lies  in  the  biaiu, 
and  whicli  can  only  l)e  estimated  by  its  manifislations,"  fir 
more  important  than  weight  or  form.  Jlut  he  is  far  from 
absolutely  refusing  to  recognise  the  influence  of  cerebral 
development ;  lu;  allows  that  below  a  certain  limit  the 
human  brain  no  longer  performs  its  functions  in  a  normal 
manner.  This  limit  he  places  at  1)00  grms.  (.'51  7i  oz.)  in 
the  f(!male, 

M.  Jiroca  raises  the  number  to  I)07  grms.  (.'{ID!)  o/,.),  and 
julds  that,  in  il;e  mah-,  tin'  limit  is  lOil)  grms.  (.'17  o/,.).  llo 
attributes  gnat  imp<jrtance  to  the  volume  of  the  brain,  esti- 
mat<<l  eitlur  ilireetly,  by  weight,  or  by  the  capacity  of  tin; 
cruniuin.  JJut  on  Hcvcral  occasions  he  protests  most  strongly 
.'igainht  the  intention  which  might  be  imputed  to  him,  of 
winhing  to  estaldish  an  absolut*'  relation  between  the  <le- 
velo|iinent  of  the  intelligerico  and  the  volume  or  weight  of 
the  brain.     "  No  well-instructed  m.-in,"  he  says,  "would  ever 


Functions  and  Weight  of  the  Brain.       411 

think   of  estimating  the  intelligence  by  measuring  the  cn- 
cephalon." 

The  two  following   tables,  borrowed  from  M.  Broca,  will 
suffice  to  show  the  truth  of  these  words: 


AVEIIAUK    WKIUHT    OF    THE    liltAIX    IX    MAN. 


From    1  to  10  years  . 
From  1 1  to  20  years 
From  21  to  30  ywirn  . 
From  :tl  to  40  years 
From  41  to  TiO  years  . 
From  51  to  IJO  years 
From  (jl  and  upwards 


prms. 

tlMol.") 
14r,.V27 

i;{4i-.-.3 
iii(»:tr, 
i:;;ti-4i 

KMll'.t 

i:i2(;-2i 


07.. 

(34-7-,). 
(.'^l-CS). 
(47-07). 
(4'.»-74). 
(4!f07). 
(47-30). 
(40-77). 


WEIGHT    OF    THE    r.KAIN    IX    SOME    EJIIXEXT    MEN. 


WF.IQIIT  OP  IIRAIX. 

NAMK. 

AOK. 

rROFESSIOK. 

pnns. 
l.s2i»'.M; 

OT. 

1. 

Cuvier     . 

.     f.3  years  . 

•  naturalist  . 

(04-.-,4). 

2. 

I?yron 

.     30  years  . 

.  i»oet       .         .     . 

ls()7<)0 

(03-73). 

2?; 

Lejeunc-Diri'-lil('t 

.     .'>4  years  . 

.  mathomatieian  . 

ir,2()-00 

(.-301). 

34. 

Fiichs 

.     r)2  years  . 

.  pafholofjist 

14!»'.i(K) 

(.V_'-S7). 

43. 

(iaiiss 

.     7.S  years  . 

.  mathematieian  . 

14;t2(H) 

(.-.2-02). 

52. 

Du|)uytren  . 

.     ns  years  . 

.  surpeon         .     . 

1430-00 

(5(  )•«.-.). 

92. 

Hermann 

•     ni  years  . 

.  pliilolopist. 

13.-.S-00 

(47-I)(»). 

l.">8. 

Hausi>maiin 

.     77  years  . 

.  mineralogist .     . 

1220OO 

(43-24). 

The  numlxrs  jilacod  before  the  name  of  each  person  indi- 
cate the  position  held  by  the  latter  in  the  list  of  31-7  cases  of 
healthy  brains  taken  by  M.  Broca  from  the  general  tabic  of 
Wa^jner.  We  find  that  the  celebrated  minoralogist  Hau.ss- 
niann  stands  alino.^t  half  way  tlown  the  list,  and  that  he  is 
separated  from  his  eminent  colleagues  by  a  considerable 
nundier  of  unknown  cxainplo.s.  Again,  we  observe  that  the 
weight  of  his  brain  is  100  grms.  (.*J  o  oz.)  below  the  average 
weight  of  men  of  his  age.  On  the  other  liand,  in  all  the 
other  cases  the  weight  of  the  brain  was  above  the  average. 

The  exception  presented  by  Jlaussmann,  the  manner  in 
which  all  these  eminent  men  arc  scattered  among  their 
ordinary  brethren,  should  be  sufficient  to  make  us  reject  all 
exaggerated  connection  of  the  magnitude  of  the  intelligence 
and  that  of  the  brain.  This  result  is  still  more  striking  if  we 
group  these  same  numbers  as  Gratiolet  has  done,  calculating 


4 1  2  TJic  Human  Species. 

the  mean  of  the  contiguous  wciglits.  Wo  tlius  obtain  for 
the  first  group  (Cuvior,  Byron)  an  average  weight  of 
181848  grms.  (04-14  oz.) ;  for  the  second  (Diriclilet,  Fuchs, 
Gauss,  Dupuytren)  1487  grms.  (52-44  oz.) ;  for  the  third 
(Hermann,  Haussmann)  1292  grms.  (45-57  oz.).  The  hitter 
is  below  the  average  weight  of  German  brains,  that  is  to  say, 
of  the  fellow-countrymen  of  the  two  eminent  men  in 
(piostion. 

This  remark  is  important.  In  the  question  under  discus- 
sion it  will  not  do  to  compare  separately  the  celebrities  who 
figure  in  Wagner's  table  ;  we  must  connect  them  with  the 
rest  of  mankind,  with  diseased,  as  well  as  with  other  brains. 
To  act  otherwise  would  be  to  give  rise  to  the  idea  that  we 
had  wished  to  evade  a  difficulty  by  neglecting  to  turn  the 
attention  to  the  fact  that,  immediately  after  the  brain  of 
Byron,  and  long  before  that  of  Gauss,  stands  the  brain  of  a 
madman.  Are,  then,  genius  and  madness  in  sucli  close  re- 
lationship ?  Are  the  volume,  the  weight,  and  the  peculiar 
cliaracters  of  Cuvier's  brain  intleed  duo  to  a  hypertrophy 
which  came  to  a  standstill  just  at  the  right  moment,  as 
Grati<»let  thought  ? 

ill.  However  abridged  and  curtailed  this  statement  of 
facts  may  be,  it  seems  to  me  sufficient  to  justify  us  in 
drawing  conclusions  ecpially  applicable  to  intlivi«luals  and  to 
races. 

We  shall  ccrtaiidy  not  be  accused  of  an  exaggerated 
inimaterialism  if  we  estimate  the  action  of  the  brain  as  wo 
estimate  the  action  of  a  muscle.  Now  experience  and  obser- 
vation daily  testify  that  in  the  latter  volume  and  form  are 
not  everything.  Functional  energy  often  more  than  com- 
pensates for  what  is  wanting  with  respect  to  mass.  Many 
other  organic  systems  would  furnish  siniilar  facts,  well-known 
t«)  all  d(M:t«)rs  and  all  physiologists.  To  assert  that  the  case 
is  different  with  the  brain  would  be,  even  in  the  absence  of 
all  direct  observation,  a  purely  gratuitotis  hypothesis,  and,  in 
the  prcHcncc  of  Wagner's  tables,  a  contradiction  of  evidence. 
With  his  Kiiiall   brain,   Haussnian,  the  correspondent  r»f  the 


Physiological  C/uwacivrs — G est  alio  u.        413 

FriMirh  Institute,  has  evidently  surpassed,  in  t.lic  matter  of 
intcHiirenco,  almost  all  his  larizc-hcadcd  contemporaries. 

liut,  on  the  other  hand,  beyond  a  certain  stage  of  decrease, 
the  muscular  apparatus  becomes  incapable  of  eflfort.  We 
can  readily  understand  that  it  should  be  so  with  the  brain 
also.  It  is,  therefore,  most  natural  to  find  that,  when  it  has 
fallen  below  a  certain  volume  and  weight,  it  gradually  passes 
from  weakness  to  impotence.  Even  ^I.  de  Bonald  could  not 
consider  it  strange,  that  an  iufdlljcnce  when  provided  only 
with  imperfect  or  almost  useless  organs,  should  only  manifest 
itself  in  an  incomplete  manner. 

Thus,  irrespective  of  all  dogmatic  or  philosophic  ideas,  we 
are  led  to  theconclusion  that  there  is  a  certain  relation  between 
the  development  of  the  intelligence  and  the  volume  and  weight 
»»f  the  brain.  But,  at  the  same  time,  we  must  allow  that  the 
material  element,  that  which  is  appreciable  to  our  senses,  is 
not  the  only  one  which  we  must  take  into  account,  for 
behind  it  lies  hidden  0)1  mthioivn  qiuintity,  an  x,  at  present 
undetermined  and  only  recognised  by  its  effects. 

IV.  Thus  from  this  fact  alone  it  follows  that  we  cannot 
act  with  too  much  caution  in  forming  an  estimate  of  a  race 
from  the  <limensions  of  its  cranium,  and  the  relative  develo|>- 
ment  of  the  Ixmcs  of  which  it  is  composed.  Gratiolct  pro- 
posed to  distinguish  frontal,  imrietal,  and  occipital  races, 
characterised  l)y  the  predominance  of  the  anterior,  medial 
and  posterior  regions  of  the  cranium  and  the  brain.  If  wo 
accept  the  word  character  as  it  is  tmderstood  by  naturali.sts, 
wo  shall  have  no  objection  to  make  to  these  denominations. 
15ut  to  go  beyond  that,  to  attribute  to  one  or  other  of  these 
races  atiy  kind  of  superiority  by  virtue  of  any  one  or  other  of 
these  characters,  wouKl  be  mtrc  hypothesis.  In  fact,  the 
Uasques,  with  their  occipital  dolichocephaly,  are  in  no  wav 
inferior  to  the  frontal  dolichocephali  of  Paris. 

\.  In  those  phenomena,  amongst  which,  d  jiriori,  we 
shouKl  be  teujpted  to  look  for  ethnological  characters,  wc 
nnist  give  the  first  place  to  oirjanic  evolution  at  different 
periods  of  life.     Now,  the  examination  of   facts  establishes 


414  T^^<^  Iliiniaji  Species. 

the  important  fact,  that,  in  thi.s  respect,  all  human  races 
present  a  remarlvablc  uniformity.  When  some  slij^ht  dif- 
ferences are  manifested,  they  show  such  coincidence  with  the 
action  of  the  conditions  of  life,  that  it  is  impossible  not  to 
recognise  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  and  this  fact  alone 
produced  a  most  significant  intercrossing  between  peoples 
evidently  identical  in  origin.  Thus,  the  whole  mass  of 
physiological  phenomena,  considered  as  characters,  add  one 
more  proof  in  favour  of  the  monogenistic  theory.  A  few 
examples  will  suffice  to  justify  these  statements. 

VI.  Let  us  first  prove  that  the  duration  of  gestation  is  the 
same  in  all  human  races.  The  importance  of  this  fact  will 
be  readily  understood. 

It  is  generally  known  that  the  intra-uterine  life  presents 
a  notable  disparity  in  the  same  zoological  group,  and  some- 
times in  nearly  related  species.  If  men  constituted  a  r/eniis, 
it  woidd  be  very  strange  if  they  were  exempt  from  this  law, 
and  that  no  differences  should  have  been  observed,  as  they 
certainly  wouhl  have  been,  between  groups.  These  differ- 
ences may  indeed  exist  to  a  certain  extent  without  rising  to 
a  specific  character,  for  they  arc  observed  in  our  races  of 
domestic  animals,  where  they  appear  to  bear  some  relation  to 
stature.  CJestation  lasts  sixty-three  days  in  large  races  of 
dogs;  from  fifty-nine  to  sixty-three  in  the  small.  This  is  the 
period  observed  in  menageries  for  the  gestation  of  the  jackal, 
the  wild  stock  of  the  dt»g.  But  it  rises  to  something  over  a 
hundred  days  for  the  wolf,  however  nearly  related  it  may 
morphologically  be  to  some  canine  nu?es. 

The  perioil  of  lactation  is  very  variable  as  to  <luration  in 
diffiTcnt  human  peoples.  Without  even  going  beyond  Franco, 
wc  Hhould  hav(r  no  difiiculty  in  giving  examples  of  such  ilif- 
fcruncus,  in  which  the  maximum  would  almost  double  the 
minimum.  It  is  evident  that  in  this  case  manners,  customs, 
etc.,  play  the  most  important  ]»art,  and  that  the  question  of 
nu:e«  Hcarcely  enters  at  all.  With  the  Negroes,  lactation 
la.stH,  as  a  general  rule,  for  two  years,  and  the  period  is  quite 
as  long  in  all  oiicnt.d   jxipnlalioiis.     It   l:isl.s  i'nv  fi\('  \c.iis  in 


Physiological  Characlcrs — Puberty.  415 

CliintO.  But  as  M.  Moraclic  tells  us,  the  Chinese  mother 
only  prolongs  it  in  onler  to  retard  the  recommencement  of 
the  monthly  courses,  which,  in  this  fertile  race,  is  rapidly 
followed  by  a  fresh  preijnancy.  There  is  nothing  surprising 
in  the  jwssibility  of  such  prolonged  lactation.  It  is  generally 
known  that  the  secretion  of  the  milk  is  supported  by  its 
use.  Amongst  ourselves,  according  to  the  evidence  of 
Desorraeaux,  one  nurse  will  sonictinies  suckle  three  or  four 
infants  in  succession. 

VII.  The  period  of  suckling  is  followed  by  that  of  child- 
hood, a  condition  very  distinct  from  those  by  which  it  will  in 
turn  be  followed.  The  human  being  is  as  yet  neither  male 
nor  female.  The  first  manifestation  of  sex  is  one  of  tlie 
most  important  epochs  of  life,  and  it  is  interesting  to  ob- 
serve that  the  arrival  of  this  epoch  varies  within  very  wide 
limits. 

The  female,  on  account  of  the  phenomena  to  which  she  is 
then  subject,  and  which  admit  the  possibility  of  direct  obser- 
vation, is,  in  this  case,  specially  adapted  for  the  researches  of 
the  anthropologist  Now,  taking  extreme  numbers,  obtained 
by  ditferent  observers  upon  several  peoples  of  the  globe,  we 
tind  that  the  minimum  age  at  which  the  female  becomes 
])ubescent  is  that  of  eight  to  nine  years,  as  observed  by 
Uldtield  in  the  Eboes,  and  the  maximum  age,  that  of  eighteen 
to  twenty  years,  noticed  by  Rush,  among  some  tribes  of 
North  America.  Setting  aside  these  exceptional  numbers, 
we  find  as  general  extremes,  ten  to  eleven  years  on  the  one 
hand,  and  fifteen  to  sixteen  on  the  other. 

The  variation  we  see  is  great,  and  we  are  naturally  led  to 
ask  if  it  is  at  all  constant  in  human  groups.  The  numerous 
statistics  which  have  been  collected  upon  this  subject,  seem 
to  justify  us  in  giving  an  absolutely  negative  reply  to  the 
([uestion. 

And,  in  the  first  place,  there  is  no  doubt  that  here  condi- 
tion8  of  life  play  an  important  part  From  the  researches  of 
M.  Brierre  de  Boismont,  it  apjK'ars  that,  in  the  same  locality, 
the    higher   or    lower   social    position,   and    the   conse<pieut 


4i6  The  Human  Specks, 

difference  in  mode  of  living,  produces  an  average  variation  of 
fourteen  months.  In  Paris,  the  women  of  the  lower  classes 
are  pubescent  at  fourteen  years  and  ten  months,  those  of  the 
middle  class  at  fourteen  years  and  five  months  ;  those  of  the 
upper  class  at  thirteen  years  and  eight  months. 

The  mode  of  life  is  sufficient  to  produce  diflcrences  of  a 
very  marked  character  in  the  age  at  which  the  female 
becomes  capable  of  conception.  At  Strasbourg,  as  at  Paris, 
the  young  country  girl  is  behind  those  of  the  town.  The 
ditference  is  about  '6\  months  for  Strasbourg  and  4^  for 
Paris.  In  Alsace,  as  upon  the  banks  of  the  Seine,  the  hard- 
ships of  field  labour  render  the  functions  of  the  individual 
life  more  active  at  the  expense  of  those  connected  with  the 
sexual. 

Again,  we  cannot  doul)t  the  influence  which  is  certainly 
exercised  by  temperature.  M.  Raciborski,  adding  to  his  own 
investigations  those  of  a  large  number  of  other  medical  men, 
Ijas  even  thought  himself  justified  in  drawing  ihe  conclusion 
that  the  age  of  puberty  is  advanced  or  retarded  by  a  little 
more  than  a  month  for  each  degree  of  latitude,  according  as 
we  calculate  from  the  CMpiator  or  the  pole,  with  the  condititm 
only  that  the  temperature  increases  or  decreases  with  the 
latitude'. 

Tiie  aetion  of  tin-  three  causes  1  have  just  mentioned  are 
most  evident.  Uut,  as  wo  have  already  remarked,  foo<l, 
temperature,  and  even  motle  of  life  do  not  alone  form  comli- 
floita  of  life.  Many  other  iidluences  Itesides  these  act  upon 
the  organism.  The  greater  or  less  amount  of  light,  and  of 
actinic  rays,  cannot  be  without  eftect. 

All  tJMsc!  iidluences  explain  how  it  is  that  the  ag(!  of 
pul)erty  varies  with  the  h.dtits  in  the  same  race;  how  women, 
b«>Ionging  to  tJM!  sanx'  l>ranch  of  the  white  aryan  race,  may 
pre.H<,'nt  the  extrctnes  which  I  have  alluded  to  above.  From 
among  the  latter  tlie  Swedes  and  Norwegians  are  pubescent 
at  from  }^)  to  1(5  years;  tln!  Knglish  at  from  l.*J  to  14;  but 
th«;  Knglish  Creoh-s  of  tlamnica  at  from  10  to  11  years.  At 
Anligoa,  Negro  and  White  wnuien,  transp(jrte<l  into  the  .same 


Physiological  Characters — Puberty.  4 1  7 

coimnou  conditions  of  life,  no  longer  present  any  diflforence 
in  this  respect.  We  sec  also  bow  it  is  that  women  belonging 
to  the  most  different  populations  and  races,  Swedes,  Dacotas, 
Corfiotas,  Potowatomies,  English,  and  Chinese,  become 
pubescent  at  the  same  age. 

Dt>es  then  race  stand  for  absolutely  nothing  in  the  pliy.sio- 
logical  j)henomena  under  consideration  ? 

Some  facts  seem  to  authorize  us  in  holding  a  contrary 
opinion.  The  Esquimaux  women  of  Labrador  arc  as  forward 
iu  this  respect  as  the  Negresses  of  our  colonies.  In  the 
Potowatomies  (AlgoiKiuins)  and  the  Dacotas  (Sioux)  there 
seems  to  be  an  average  difference  of  a  year  in  the  a]H)ear- 
ance  of  the  first  phenomena  of  puberty.  Several  other 
observations  of  the  same  nature  might  be  quoted  from 
various  travellers.  There  is,  however,  nothing  to  astonish 
us  iu  these  facts.  They  are  only  the  reproduction  in  the 
human  species,  of  what  we  observe  every  day  in  our 
domestic  animals  and  cultivated  jilants,  all  of  which  have 
forward  and  backward  races. 

M.  I^agneau  studied  this  question  with  particular  reference 
to  France.  He  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  conditions  of 
life  are  not  sufficient  to  explain  the  differences  which  were 
proved  by  his  investigations,  and  that  the  age  of  puberty, 
depending  upon  the  rajiidity  of  the  development  of  the 
'•rganism,  varies  slightly  with  the  race.  This  opinion,  which 
it  seems  as  if  we  might  accept  within  the  limits  he  himself 
h;is  prescribed,  M.  Lsigneau  states  with  great  reserve. 

These  limits  are  very  narrow.  They  vary  from  fourteen 
vears  and  five  days  to  sixteen  years,  one  month  and  twenty- 
four  days.  The  minimum  age  is  presented  by  the  female 
population  of  Toulon  :  the  maximum,  by  that  of  Strasbourg. 
15ut  between  these  two  localities  there  is  a  difference  of  about 
three  degrees  of  latitude  and  five  degrees  in  the  mean  tem- 
perature. Toulon  enjoys  a  verj*  equable  climate  ;  the 
climate  of  Stni.sl)ourg  is,  on  the  contrary,  €xcexi*\c<i  ;  at 
Toulon  the  climate  is  sunny,  while  at  Strasl)ourg  there  is 
much    cloud ;    the   TovXonaxac   lives    in    the    open   air,  and 


4i8  The  I  lit  man  S/yaics. 

breathes  the  stimulating  air  of  the  sea,  the  S( nishoitrgeoise 
lives  in  the  house  and  breathes  an  air  which  is  generally 
damp  ;  the  former  driidis  wine,  the  latter  beer.  All  these 
contlitions,  stimulating  on  the  one  hand,  and  debilitating  on 
the  other,  must  exercise  some  infltxencc.  After  taking  all 
these  circumstances  into  consideration,  we  see  that,  in  France 
at  lea-st,  the  iiitluence  of  race  scarcely  exceeds  that  exercis(>d 
by  difference  in  social  position  upim  the  population  of  the 
same  town. 

The  researches  of  'SI.  Lagneau  also  have  reference  to  the 
time  when,  both  in  the  male  and  in  the  female,  the  repro- 
ductive faculties  become  extinct.  The  evidences  are  here 
neither  so  numerous  nor  so  definite.  Nevertheless,  from  the 
little  that  we  know  on  this  point,  the  result  would  seem  to 
point  to  conclusions  similar  to  those  which  we  have  men- 
tioned above. 

VIII.  We  might  easily  be  led  to  think  that  forwardness 
or  backwardness  in  organic  development,  defined  by  the 
age  at  which  ])uberty  ai)pears,  should  involve  a  proportion- 
ately longer  or  shorter  duration  of  human  life.  Precise 
observations  arc  far  from  being  so  numerous  and  complete  as 
to  solve  this  important  problem  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 
The  greater  number  of  facts  with  which  we  are  acquainted, 
scarcely  seem,  however,  to  support  the  tlieoreticid  conclusions 
admitted  by  some  anthrop(jl(»gists,  by  Virey  among  others. 
Kvervthing  seems  to  indicate,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  limits 
of  life  are  almost  the  same  for  all  human  races,  ^""''^'"^''^  '^''^ 
they  nre  placed  in  conditions  of  existence,  which  are  relatively 
equally  f;ivf)urable.  It  is,  in  fact,  evident  that  thes(»  condi- 
ti«»ns  exercise  a  most  marked  inlluence  upcjn  tlur  durati<tn  of 
orgnnismH.  WIkmi  life  is  in  question  we  do  not  deny  the 
lut'ntn  (tf  (hr  riniiliflons  of  life. 

Here,  again,  appe.-irs  the  multiple  nature  of  these  con- 
ditions. We  find  from  the  statistical  researches  of  Houdin 
that  iti  sixty-K<'ven  years,  from  177(>  to  ISlJl,  the  average  lifo 
of  man  in  France  wan  increased  by  eleven  years.  It  ha.s, 
therefore,  gained  sixty  days  a  year;   it  li.is  aft.iined  almost 


Physiological  Characters — Duration  of  Life.  419 

the  highest  limit  gained  in  this  respect  by  European  peoples 
(^M^.")  years).  The  temperature  has  not  changed,  nor  has 
there  been  any  amelioration  in  the  climate.  But  the  general 
conditions  of  existence  are  modified  and  the  result  appears  in 
these  very  significant  figures. 

Tiie  average  life  of  European  Whites,  the  only  peoples  con- 
cerning whom  we  possess  sufKciently  exact  data,  oscillates 
between  28*18  years  (Priussia)  and  30  S  years  [Schlemvif/- 
Jlolateln,  Lauenbouiy)  ;  a  difference  of  more  than  eleven 
years. 

The  tables  of  averagt.'  duration  t»f  life,  collected  by  Doudin 
and  borrowed  from  Hain  ami  Bernouilli,  prove  beyond  a 
doubt  that,  amongst  our  European  peoples  at  least,  mean 
duration  of  life  depends  to  a  very  slight  extent,  if  at  all, 
ujjon  the  race.  The  German  states  present  an  average  of 
from  2818  yeai-s  {Pni^nia)  to  3G8  yeai-s  {Hanover). 

Temperature,  at  least  when  considered  alone,  seems  to 
exercise  hardly  any  notable  influence,  Naples  stantling  almost 
midway  between  the  preceding  numbers  (STGo  years). 

These  facts,  obtained  from  among  the  best  known  peoples, 
justify  us  in  thinking  that,  olher  ihings  helnj  equal,  the 
iiiration  of  life  must  be  almost  universally  the  same.  It 
will  be  understood  that  all  strict  comparison  is  here  out  of 
the  question,  for  want  of  statistical  dociunents,  properly  .so 
called.  Still,  a  number  of  facts  obtained  by  various  traveller 
amongst  peoples  of  very  difTerent  races,  and,  in  some  cases, 
jilacetl  under  opposite  conditions  of  existence,  seem  to  justify 
this  conclusion. 

All  travellers,  who  have  been  in  a  position  to  judge  for 
themselve-s,  have  spoken  of  the  Lapps  as  generally  living  to  a 
great  age;  men  of  from  seventy  to  ninety  years  are  not  rare 
amongst  them. 

Upon  the  evidence  of  travellers  of  the  highest  reputation, 
it  seems  that  the  greater  number  of  American  peojdes  also 
reach  an  advanced  age,  and  often  without  bearing  any 
externid  traces  of  decrepituile.  Howevir  rmle  and  often 
precarious  their  mode  of  life  may  be,  the  representatives  of 


420  The  Ihnuaii  Species. 

these  races  are  iii  no  way  infirior  to  Europeans,  as  regards 
duration  of  life. 

Is  it  different  in  the  case  of  the  Negro,  as  Virey  has 
thought  ?  Evorytliing  seems  to  prove  the  contrary.  Even 
when  removed  from  his  native  hind,  and  placed  under  condi- 
tions which  we  have  seen  to  be  very  unfavourable  to  him, 
the  Negro  lives  as  long  as  the  European.  This  result  is 
obtained  from  the  register  of  slaves  consulted  by  Prichard 
in  the  West  Indies.  This  anthropologist  has  shown,  by 
examples  drawn  from  different  sources,  that  centenarians 
were  far  from  rare  among  the  individuals  of  this  race 
scattered  through  different  parts  of  America.  From  the 
dociunents  whicii  he  quotes,  it  even  appears  that  in  the 
States  of  Nov/  Jersey,  an  official  census  gave  a  little  more 
than  one  Nejrro  centenarian  in  the  thousand,  but  only  one 
White  centenarian  in  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand. 

Nevertheless  Adanson,  Winterbottom,  and  others,  state 
that  the  Negro  of  the  Senegal  and  Guinea  age  early  in  life, 
auil  the  latter  adds  that  individuals  of  this  race  rarely  reach 
an  advanced  age.  Dr.  Oldfield,  in  the  great  English  E.\-pe- 
dition  up  the  Niger,  makes  the  same  remark  with  reference 
to  the  part  of  the  country  which  skirts  the  river  Nunn,  a 
marshy  region,  covered  with  a  luxuriant  vegetation  8upp<trted 
by  inundation.s.  Hut  higher  up  the  river,  in  the  country 
discovered  by  Nyffe,  he  met,  on  the  cuntrary,  witli  a  large 
nuinher  of  itld  men  who  must  have  bein  upwards  of  eighty, 
and  visited  an  old  chief,  who,  he  say.s,  was  11. 1  years  old. 

Th«!re  is  nothing  contradictory  in  tiiese  facts.  'I'Ih  y  merely 
show  us  that  the  Negro  is  subject  to  the  law  couimon  to  all 
other  men.  It  is  in  vain  that  he  has  conformed  to  conditions 
of  cxiHtcnce,  which  the  White  has  so  mueh  difhculty  in  living 
tinder;  when  thes(r  conditions  are  aggravated  and  exceed  a 
certain  limit,  he  suffirs,  ai:d  his  life  is  shortened.  Tlie  native 
of  the  banks  <tf  the  Nuim  is  ])laccd,  (XH  a  Ntgro,  under  condi- 
tions of  exi.stence  siniilnr  to  those  to  which,  '\u  former  times, 
the  Whit^H  ()(  ihv  l)omlH'  in  France  were  subject,  and  in  both 
caees  the  result  was  the  wuno. 


Physiological  Characlcrs  — Duration  of  L ifc.  4  2 1 

But  beyond  these  exceptional  localities,  when  the  condi- 
tions are  equally  favourable,  the  duration  of  life  seems  to  be 
the  same  in  the  two  typical  races  which  are  the  most  widely 
8ej)aratod  of  all  in  the  human  species.  In  any  case  the  same 
extreme  limits  have  been  proved  fur  the  Negro  and  the 
White. 


CHArTER   XXXII. 


PATHOLOGICAL    CHARACTEIIS. 


I.  The  patli<>U>^acal,  as  well  as  the  pliysiolDt^ical,  cuiulitiou 
iu  the  various  human  fjroups  presents  peculiarities  which 
may  be  considered  as  characters.  Tliese  characters  are  some- 
times even  more  clearly  defined,  becaiisc  morbid  phenomena 
are  often  very  strongly  marked.  This  question  is  one  of 
f^rcat  interest ;  but  to  treat  it  in  the  detail  which  it  deserves, 
wordd  re(|uire  a  greater  amount  of  both  time  and  space  than 
can  1)0  given  it  here.  I  shall,  therefore,  c»)ntino  myself  to 
recalling  a  few  general  facts  already  known,  and  to  quoting 
a  few  examples  which  will  serve  to  fix  the  nature  ami 
meaning  of  pathological  facts  regarded  from  an  anthropo- 
logical point  of  view. 

II.  Wc  have,  as  yet,  in  treating  of  the  conditions  of  life, 
scarcely  considered  more  than  their  mudlj'yhi(j  action,  while 
it  is  universally  known  th.it  they  also  exert  a  tUnturhlng 
action.  Actions  of  this  kind  are  in  most  cases  the  funda- 
mental cause  of  iliseast'. 

\\'<-  are  here,  therefore,  again  led  to  considerations  similar 
to  those  with  which  we  have  so  often  been  brought  in 
contact.  We  will  therefore  recall  in  a  few  words  the  general 
rcBultH  of  the  preceding  investigations. 

1.  T\\c  fuiti/ahiciitnl  nature  of  all  men  is  the  same. 

2.  'i'lie  formation  of  di.stinct  races  has  been  the  sole  caiiso 
of  modifications  In  this  fund.-iMKiit.-d  nature  of  all  huntaii 
gn-oups. 

JJ.  Tiie  several  characters  and  special  nptitutles  which 
constitute  a  kind  of  acquired  nature,  have,  in   each  of  the 


Pathological  Characlcrs — Iipidcmics.         423 

t^roups,  been  developed  under  the  iulluencc  of  the  cuaditions 
of  life. 

It  is  clear  that  uheu  tiie  di.stuibin!,'  action,  the  cause  of 
disease,  works  upon  the  fundamcntnl  element,  the  same 
causes  will  proihxce  fundamcntallu  siTnilar  effects ;  when,  on 
the  contrary,  this  action  is  exercised  upon  the  acquived  and 
Hiwc'ial  element  of  each  race,  the  same  causes  will  produce 
different  effects.  In  other  words,  nn'dy  of  species  and 
onuUiplicifi/  of  racf's  involve  the  liability  of  all  men  to 
common  diseases,  which  will,  at  most,  vary  as  to  accessory 
phenomena ;  but  also  alloNv  the  existence  of  diseases  more 
or  less  peculiar  to  certain  human  ^oups. 

Nevertheless,  the  great  majority  of  diseases  will  be  common 
to  all  men,  and  merely  present  modifications  in  the  different 
groups.  For  example,  one  race  may  be  either  more  liable  to 
or  more  unsusceptible  to  certain  atlections  than  another. 

Let  me  observe  in  passing,  and  without  insisting  upon 
facts  known  to  all  agriculturists  and  to  all  breeders,  that 
similar  phenomena  are  presented  by  the  races  of  vegetable 
species  which  have  long  been  under  cultivation,  and  of 
animal  species  for  centuries  subject  to  domestication. 

The  propositions  which  I  liave  just  brought  forward  are 
tlu'  natural  result  of  the  facts  to  which  I  have  alrea«lv  drawn 
attt-ntion,  and  of  the  principK'S  admitted  at  the  conmience- 
luent  of  this  book.  They  are  in  remarkable  accordance  with 
the  results  of  experiment  and  observation. 

III.  It  becomes  more  and  more  t-vidcnt,  from  inv(\stiga- 
tions  whit;li  are  daily  incrca.sing  in  number,  that  all  human 
races  are  subject  to  almost  every  disease. 

The  Negro  and  the  ^Vhite  have  often  been  contnusteil 
from  a  pathological  |X)int  of  view,  and  it  lia.s  been  stateil 
that  localities  in  which  the  latter  succumb,  are  not  unhealthy 
to  the  former.  It  is  said  that  marsh  fever.*?,  dysentery,  and 
abscess  ujion  the  liver,  so  feared  by  Europeans,  do  not  attack 
the  inhabitants  of  the  coa.sts  of  Guinea,  and  the  banks  of  the 
Senegal  and  the  Gaboon.  These  arc  exaggerated  statements 
which  were  reduced  to  their  true  value  by  the  observations 
19 


424  The  Human  Species. 

of  Wintcrbottom,  Oldfield,  and  others.  More  recent  works 
confirm  those  earlier  observations  in  every  respect  :  "  The 
Negro  race,"  sjiys  M.  Bcrchon,  "  sufters  from  dysentery  and 
abscess  on  the  liver  like  the  white  race.  .  .  .  The  deadly 
fevers,  which,  with  the  two  diseases  just  mentioned,  form  the 
pathognomonical  trilogy  of  Senegalese  pathology,  will  first 
attack  Europeans;  but  the  Blacks  are  by  no  means  exempt 
from  them." 

The  last  remark  is  confirmed  in  a  very  rcmarkablo  manner 
by  the  numbers  given  in  the  accompanying  table,  which  I 
borrow  from  M.  Boudin.  lie  gives  a  summary  of  the  English 
official  documents  n|x>n  the  annual  mortality  in  the  thousand 
at  Sierra  Leone  from  LSiO  to  I80G. 

DisKAei:s.  \,iiiTi:(i.    NEonoua. 

Marsh  fevers 410-2  2-4 

Kniptivc  fevers 00  6'9 

lUscases  of  the  liiiij,'s 4-U  G'3 

DiHca.sc8  of  the  liver i'A)  \\ 

(instn)-inte«fin:il  iliscaj*efi  .         .         .         .         .  Il'.'l  ^>•'^ 

l)i.si-;i.scH  of  the  nervous  system      .         .         .     .  -l^  ]•«» 

Drrij.sy I.J  0:i 

Otlicr  diseases IJO  (;-2 

Sierra  Leone  is  one  of  the  most  unhealthy  stations  for  the 
AVhite  race,  while  for  the  Negro  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  one  of 
the  places  wlu-re  the  rate  of  mortality  is  lowest.  'I'he  relation 
which  .shows  this  difference  is  indeed  most  alarming  (4.S8() 
to  301).  Yet  tliu  nosological  table  is  the  .same  for  the  two 
races,  ior  although  in  this  statement  there  arc  no  eruj)tive 
fevers  given  for  the  English  .soKliers,  we  kuiiw  very  well  that 
the  White  races  are  by  Jio  means  exempt  from  tluMii. 

Other  tables  drawn  uj)  by  M.  JJoudin,  with  tin;  a.ssistance 
of  tlie  Haine  tlocuments,  bring  into  still  stronger  relief  the 
fundamental  fact  now  under,  consideration.  In  one  of  them 
wt!  learn  the  comparative  mortality  of  the  Negro  and  the 
JJhuk  from  marsh  fevers  in  seventeen  localities,  taken  from 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  globe,  from  CJibraltar  to  (Juiana,  and 
from  Jamaica  to  Ceylon.  The  nundter  of  deaths  is  always 
conhiderably  greater    for    the    Europeans,   but    th(y   almost 


Pathological  Characters — Epidemics.        425 

;il\vays  rise  or  fall  siiimltaneously,  and  in  tlio  satnc  place, 
for  the  two  races,  when  Imtli  arc  immigrants. 

It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  re})eat  the  remark  that  all 
the  ffreat  ejiiilemics  arc  common  to  all  races,  and  that  the 
yellow  fever  attacks  indifferently  the  White,  Yellow,  or  the 
J  Mack  race.  The  yellow  fever  is  so  far  from  beinj^  special  in 
character,  and  is  so  subordinate  to  the  action  of  the  condi- 
tions of  life,  that  Mexicans  from  colder  regions  are  a.?  liable 
to  it  as  even  Europeans  ;  and  in  the  islands  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  the  Creole  Whites  easily  withstand  those  influences 
which  are  so  fatal  to  immigrants. 

IV.  Eruptive  maladies,  and  particularly  small-pox,  seem 
to  have  been  unknown  in  America  till  tiiey  were  brought  by 
Europeans  to  that  continent.  On  the  other  hand,  the  latter 
gave  them  some  of  the  most  serious  forms  of  syphilis,  which 
characterised  the  terrible  epidemic  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
In  this  fatal  exchange,  the  character  of  the  two  diseases  was 
remarkably  aggiavated  in  pa.ssing  from  one  race  to  the  other, 
so  that  populations  attacked  by  them  for  the  first  time  would 
suffer  much  more  than  those  who  had  cominunieated  the 
disea.se.  In  America,  whole  populations  have  di.sapj)earcil 
from  eruptive  fevei-s,  sometimes  with  terrible  rapitlity.  The 
celebrated  tribe  of  the  Mandans,  when  l)lockaded  by  the 
Sioux,  and  unable  to  escape  this  scourge,  was  entirely  anni- 
hilated in  a  few  days,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  absent 
individuals.  Catlin.  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the.se 
details,  and  who  obtained  them  from  Whites  protected  by 
vaccination,  adils  that  tho.se  who  were  attacked  by  small 
]»ox,  succumbed  in  two  or  thred  hours.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  know  what  were  the  consefpiences  in  Europe  of  that 
infection,  which,  even  at  the  present  day,  too  often  poi.sons 
the  very  sources  of  life. 

Thus,  a  human  race  may  be  unac(|uainted  with  one,  or 
M»veral  diseases,  or  with  certain  morbid  forms,  though  at  the 
>ame  time  but  too  apt  to  contract  them.  Once  attacked,  it 
may  even  develop  this  di.sea.se,  which  is  new  to  it,  in  a  moro 
violent  form  than  any  hitherto  known. 


426  The  I  III  man  Species. 

V.  Tlierc  arc  diseases  wliicli,  thougli  ('(iininon  to  all  human 
races,  attack  some  in  prefei'ence  to  others.  The  latter  then 
enjoy,  compared  svitii  the  former,  a  relative  immunity.  This 
would  necessarily  result  from  what  we  have  already  scon. 
Let  us  add  that  tiicse  differences  in  the  action  of  the  same 
]iatho<renistic  cause,  are  evident  in  cases  of  epidemics.  "When 
(luadaloupe  was  attacked  by  cholera  in  18()5  and  ISGO,  the 
rate  of  mortality  was  270  per  cent,  for  Chinese,  386  for 
Hindoos,  4-31  for  Whites,  032  for  Mulattoes,  and  9-44  for 
Negroes.  These  figines  are  the  more  interesting  from  the 
fact  that  all  these  races  were  immigrants. 

It  seems  sometimes,  as  if  two  causes  of  death  maintained 
a  kind  of  e([uilibriuni  and  reciprocity  between  two  races.  I 
have  already,  when  speaking  of  acclimatisation,  pointed  out 
the  contrast  which  is  presented  by  the  Negro  and  the  White 
from  this  point  of  view.  Of  all  hinnau  races  the  White  is 
mo.st  sensitive  to  marsh  fevers,  and  the  Black  least  so.  On 
the  otlicr  hand,  the  Negro  race  suffers  more  than  any  other 
fr<jm  plithi^^is,  while  the  White  race  may,  in  this  respect,  bo 
almost  cla-ssed  with  other  gr(»ups,  with  the  Malays  for  e.xample. 

Ihit,  again,  there  are  immunities  more  com[)lete  than  that 
of  the  Negro,  from  marsh  affections;  and,  further,  these 
immunities  may  be  lost,  either  in  the  case  of  an  entire  group 
of  population,  or  in  that  6f  i.solated  individuals.  I  will  hero 
borrow  two  striking  ex'amples  from  M.  Boudin's  work. 

KIcphantiasis,  that  affection  by  which  certain  jtarts  of  tlic 
b(»dy  are  sometimes  deformed  in  so  strange  a  manner,  is 
found  in  the  Indies  and  at  Barbadoe.-^.  In  the  latter  island, 
Negroes  alone  were  attackid  by  this  hideous  disease  till  the 
year  l/Ot.  One  White  was,  in  that  year,  atVected  by  it  for 
the  firMt  time.  But  tiic  disca.sc  made  way,  and  in  17G0  it 
had  extended  to  the  c>ro/c  ])oitulatinn.  W\\'\ics  i>f  J'JllVojican 
(>i'l</ia  have,  a.s  yet,  escaped. 

The  clephantiasiH  of  India  is  found  in  r'eyl<'n.  'I'lure, 
again,  it  only  ntta<ks  natives,  cre«»les  and  indivi<luals  of 
Tiiixcfl  blood,  llimloos  and  Kuropeans,  strangers  in  the 
i.slund,  arc   exempt    fioni    it.     Seott,   ([uoted  by  M.  Bondin, 


PatJiological  Characters — Relative  Ivimitnity.  427 

states  tliat  onhj  one  cane  of  this  iliscaso  liad  been  observed 
in  a  European  White.  But  this  individual  hud  inhabited 
the  island  for  thirty  years ;  acclimatisation  hail  been  carried 
so  far  in  his  case  as  to  causi^  him  to  luse  his  cthnohxj'iad 
immunity. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  have  seen,  in  speaking  of  acclimati- 
sation, that  Creoles  easily  live  and  prosper  in  certain  localities 
which  are  most  dangerous  to  immigrants.  They  have, 
therefore,  acquired,  at  the  price  of  sacrifices  made  by  pre- 
ceding generations,  a  relative  immunity  which  is  not  enjoyed 
by  tlic  majority  of  Europeans. 

lu  the  acquisition  of  one  of  these  immunities,  a  race  may 
lose  another.  In  connection  with  the  cholera  which  I  have 
just  mentioned,  Creole  Wliites  and  Negroes  were  attacked 
to  an  appreciably  greater  extent  than  Whites  and  Negroes 
who  had  recently  immigiated,  and  were  consequently  not 
yet  acclimatised.  Thus,  the  conditions  of  life  in  (Juadaloupe, 
and  those  of  other  Mexican  islands,  .seem  to  exercise  a 
double  action.  On  the  one  hand,  it  diminishes  in  a  con- 
siderable degree  the  aptitude  to  contract  yellow  fever;  on 
the  other,  it  renders  the  human  organism  a]>preciably  more 
accessible  to  the  influence  of  cholera. 

VI.  Such  significant  facts  as  these  require  no  comment 
It  is  clear  that  we  have  here  those  rclatlre  inimunitif^ 
which  several  polygenists  wished  to  consider  as  specific 
chnractcrs.  Without  possessing  anything  approaching  the 
imp(»rtance  which,  from  this  p;nnt  of  view,  is  posse.s.st'd  by 
phy.siological  phenomena,  they  equally  render  evident  the 
fundamentally  identical  nature  of  all  human  group.s.  Owing 
their  special  element  essentially  to  ((cquircd  imtiire,  they 
demonstrate  the  diflerence  of  races  rather  more  clearly  than 
physiological  phenomena.  Both,  however,  are  equally /« ?tc- 
fional ;  and  the  functions  acting  necessarily  inuler  the  imme- 
diate influence  of  the  conditions  of  life,  demonstrate  almost 
in  the  same  degree  the  preponderating  influence  of  the  latter. 

VII.  We  cjinnot  touch  upon  (piestioiis  of  ethnological 
pathology  without  saying  a  few  words  upon  the  strange  and 


428  TJic  Iluiimn  Species. 

fatal  influonco  which  tlie  White  race  seems  to  exercise  upon 
certain  inferior  races  whose  tenitories  it  has  invaded. 

Nowliere  is  tliis  niehinclioly  phenomena  more  striking 
than  in  Polynesia.  Figures  liere  speak  with  touching 
eloquence. 

In  the  Sandwiclj  Islands  Cook  calculated  the  population 
at  30(),00().  In  INOI  there  were  but  (iT.ONl-,  aheut  'It  \iGX 
cent  of  the  original  population. 

In  New  Zealand  Cook  found  -lOO.OOO  Ma..rics.  In  1S.)8 
there  were  only  50,0 1!)  remaining,  14  per  cent,  of  the  former 
population.  Depopulation  has  continued  from  that  time. 
From  18-").5  to  1S()4  the  loss  wa.s  22  per  cent,  for  the  province 
of  llotorua,  the  Lakes  and  ^laketou  ;  it  was  li>  per  cent,  in 
tv:o  years,  from  1859  to  18G1,  in  the  Chatham  Islands. 

In  the  Marcpiesas  Islands,  in  1S13,  Porter  calculated  tiiere 
wefe  1!I,0()()  warriors,  giving  a  population  of  from  70,000  to 
80,000.  In  1858  M.  Jouan  found  2,500  or  .*M>00  warriors 
and  ahout  11,000  inhabitants,  a  decrea.se  of  80  per  cent 

From  a  comparison  of  the  estimates  of  Cook  and  Forster, 
it  :ii»p«'ars  that  the  population  of  Tahiti  mu.st  have  been  at 
least  2-l-0,000.  In  1857  the  oflieial  census  only  gave  7,212, 
that  is  to  .say,  a  little  more  than  3  per  cent  of  the  original 
population. 

These  facts  woull  be  eipialiy  strange,  were  they  purely 
local,  lint  they  arc  universal,  appearing  even  in  the  nu)st 
isolated  i.slan<ls,  in  the  I3a.ss  islands,  which  form  the  extreme 
limit  of  Polynesia  on  the  .south-eiust  At  the  beginning  of 
the  century  Davie.s  counted  2,000  inhabitants;  in  1874, 
Mojrcnhout  oidy  found  .'{00,  15  per  cent  of  the  former 
poptdation. 

Tln5  preceding  calculations  have  all  been  tiken  from 
ea-stcrn  INtlynesia,  which,  as  we  know,  was  the  first  to  attract 
KuropeauH.  A  few  years  ago,  liowever,  the  western  archi- 
pelag<K;8  were  in  their  turn  invaded,  and  the  population  is 
aln-ndy  Hcnsibly  derrcsusing  in  the  islands  of  Tonga,  Vavau, 
Tongatibou.eU;.    The  case  seems  to  be  the  same  in  th*-  Fijis. 

Not  only  docs  tlio  rate  of  mortality  increase  in  this  un- 


Decline  of  the  Polynesian  Races.  429 

fortuiKitc  l\ilyiiosiaii  r.ict' ;  tlu'ie  is  also  a  decrease  in  tlie 
luinilur  of  birtlis.  The  fact  has  long  Inen  noticed  in  a 
general  luainur.  'riit,'  following  figurt-s  give  it  a  strange  pre- 
cisioiL  In  the  Mar(|uesas  Archiiti-'lago,  at  Taio-Hae,  M. 
Jouan  saw  the  popnlation  fall  in  three  years  from  400  to 
2oO,  during  whieh  time  oidy  three  or  four  births  were 
registered.  In  tin-  Sandwich  Islands,  from  among  SO  wom«'n 
legitimately  married,  M.  Delapelin  fountl  that  only  39  had 
chihlrcn.  There  were  only  19  children  in  the  twenty  prin- 
cipal families  of  chiefs.  Finally,  in  l.SH>,  the  oOieial  statistics 
•  |Uoted  by  M.  lie  my,  give  4,'):i0  deaths,  and  only  \,\-l'l  births. 
The  case  is  the  .same  at  the  other  extremity  of  Polynesia. 
In  New  Zealand,  .says  M.  Colenso,  marriages  are  rarely  fertile. 
The  seven  principal  chiefs  of  Ahuriri  are  without  children, 
w  itli  the  exception  of  Te-Hapuku  ;  but  of  the  four  married 
sons  of  the  latter,  three  are  as  yet  without  a  family.  Nine 
out  of  eleven  marriages  were  here  barren. 

Many  causes  have  been  proposed  in  order  to  explain  these 
melancholy  phenomena.  Wars,  famines,  and  epidemics  have 
been  suggestc«l  in  turn,  but  these  scourges  are  only  local  in 
their  ctfects.  Some  have  mentioned  syphilis,  but  they  forget 
that  the  mother  of  CEdid«'e  had  died  of  this  disease  before 
even  Wallis  undtrtook  his  voyage.  The  blame  lias  been 
laid  on  drunkenmss  introduced,  it  is  said,  by  Europeans  ; 
but  before  the  importation  of  our  spirits  the  Polynesians 
were  (juite  able  to  inebriate  them.selves  with  their  hiva, 
more  terrible  even  than  our  brandy.  As  to  ilebauchery,  we 
know  to  what  an  extent  it  was  carried  by  the  natives,  who 
had,  in  that  respect,  nothing  to  learn  from  P]uropoans. 

Can  it  be  that  a  higher  civilizatii»n  bears  within  itself  some- 
thing which  is  incompatible  with  the  existence  of  inferior 
laees?  Do  the  dominion  exercised  by  the  stranger,  ihe 
invasion  of  the  land,  and  the  violence  done  t<.)  religion  and 
customs  in.spire  these  men,  once  so  free  and  proud,  with  such 
despair  that  they  refuse  to  have  any  posterity  ?  We  may 
allow  some  consiileration  to  these  moral  causes  in  the  phe- 
nomena which  occur   in  Tahiti,  the  Sandwich   Islands  and 


430  The  Human  Species. 

New  Zoalaiul.  But  how  can  we  apply  tliis  explanation  to 
those  archipelagoes  ■where  the  local  race  has  remained 
dominant,  and  where,  with  its  ancient  mode  of  life,  it  has 
preserved  all  the  traditions  of  its  ancestors  ?  Now  this  was 
tiic  case  in  the  Manjuesas  during  the  time  that  M.  Jouan 
and  P,  Mathias  were  there  ;  European  inhabitants  are  still 
rarjj  in  the  Samoan  and  Tongan  Islands. 

Two  naval  surgeons,  MM.  Bourgarel  and  Brulfert,  have 
alone  been  able  to  throw  some  light  upon  this  melancholy 
j)rublem.  The  former  found  that  tubercles  were  invarlahhj 
present  in  the  lungs  of  bodies  submitted  to  post-mortem 
examination.  The  latter  tells  us  that  almost  all  Polynesians 
suffer  from  an  obstinate  cough,  and  that  in  eight  cases  out 
of  ten  tuberculosis  follows  these  bronchial  catarrhs.  Now 
phthisis  does  not  appear  in  the  list  of  diseases  drawn  up  by 
the  old  voyagers.  Have  we,  then,  imjtorted  it  into  these 
islands  ?  Developing  in  a  new  region,  in  a  race  to  whom  it 
was  formerly  unknown,  luis  this  di.sease  assumed  a  more 
terrible  form,  uith  examples  of  which  we  are  acquainted  ? 
Already  hereditary  in  our  own  ca.se,  has  it  become  endemic 
or  cpiilemic  in  Polynesia  ?  If  it  is  so,  we  may  .say  that  it  is 
all  over  with  the  Polynesian  race.  In  another  half  century, 
or  at  most  a  century,  it  will  have  disappeared,  at  leiust  as  a 
pure  race  ;  it  will  have  been  re])laced  by  a  cro.s.s,  which  in 
the  Marquesas  Islands  has  already  begun  to  increase  the 
population. 


BOOK   X. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL  CnARACTEUS  OF   TIIH    11  UMAX 
SPECIES. 


CHAPTER    XXX  HI. 


INTELLECTUAL   ClIAUACTKUS. 


I.  I\  this  ]>u()k  I  propose  to  give  umlcr  a  c-oimnnii  title  a 
concise  exaininatiun  ot"  the  characters  iluc  to  InttUojcnre, 
luomllty  and  rdijlon.  I  shall  thus,  perhaps,  be  reproached 
with  having  connected  too  closely  phenomena  which,  else- 
where, I  have  attributed  to  different  causes,  and  consequently 
with  having,  apparently  at  least,  contradicted  myself.  13ut,  on 
the  one  hand,  after  what  I  have  said  upon  this  subject  in  the 
first  chapter,  there  can  be  no  dttubt  a.s  to  the  manner  in 
which  I  regard  this  ([uestion  ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  intel- 
lectual phenomena  acquire  such  a  development  in  man,  that 
sometimes  they  almost  rise  to  the  dignity  of  attributes,  and 
therefore  deserve  to  be  placed  by  the  side  of  phenomena 
which  are  entirely  human. 

II.  In  the  preceding  chapters  we  have  reviewed  physical 
man.  Rut  man  is  not  merely  a  certain  portion  of  organised 
and  living  matter  like  a  plant  Besides  this  there  is  in  man 
a  soiiu'Oi'dhj  which  fcch,  jiuhjcn,  reaxonfi,  and  wUU.  This 
something,  the  origin  and  nature  of  which  it  is  not  the  duty 
of  the  naturalist  to  discover,  is  manifested  by  actions  and 
hy  facts.  These  facts  difter  in  different  human  races.  They 
may,  they  ought  to  be,  looked  upon  as  chanictera,  equally  with 


( 


432  TJic  Human  Species. 

the  actions  of  our  animal.races,  such  as  the  pointer,  the  grey- 
IujvihI,  the  terrier  or  the  coUie. 

We  .shall  see  that,  although  approaching  ground  generally 
regarded  as  belonging  by  right  to  philosophy,  anthropology 
does  not  on  that  account  show  any  loss  respect  for  the  domain 
i)f  the  latter.  The  philosopher  is  concerned  with  the  distinc- 
tion to  be  established  between  mind  and  matter,  and  with 
the  discovery  of  the  mysterious  link  which  unites  the  physical 
with  the  intellectual  being;  the  anthropologist  with  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  several  manifestations  resulting  from  this 
connection,  and  with  the  recognition  of  the  distinctive  charac- 
teristic marks  of  the  groups  which  he  is  studying.  The 
former  goes  back  to  causes  ;  the  latter  confines  himself  to 
effects,  and  therefore  does  not  exceed  the  limits  of  natural 
science. 

For  this  very  reason,  in  treating  of  man,  we  meet  with  a 
difficulty  at  starting,  which  has  been  already  pointed  out. 
\Vh(  n  entering  upon  the  examination  of  psychological  facts, 
science  has  scarcely  more  than  details  to  stu«ly,  as  in  the 
examination  of  i)hysiological  characters.  Here,  as  elsewhere, 
the  coii<lilioii8  of  life  i)lay  a  considerable  part.  If  they 
exercise  an  influence  upon  the  manifestations  of  organic  life, 
they  influence  to  an  almost  equal  extent  those  actions  which 
interpret  the  acting  and  reacting  element  in  us.  And  not 
oidy  does  our  intelligence  conform  to  jiresent  conditions,  but 
indefinitely,  multiplies  their  influence  by  accumulating  and 
combining  all  anterior  facts  by  means  of  memory,  and  im- 
pr).ses  ujton  itself  new  conditions  fiom  which  new  phenomena 
inces.santly  result. 

The  study  of  intellectual  chanicteis  must,  then-fore,  for 
the  most  part  be  carried  out  by  the  detailed  examination  <»f 
raceH.  Nevertheless,  we  may  notice  in  passing  the  most 
general  features  of  some  races,  if  only  in  order  to  explain 
more  fidly  the  tnidi  of  the  .statements  which  have  just  been 

Mi.ide. 

III.  Lmiguaf/e.  "  Anintals  have  voice,  man  alont-  ha.H 
Kpecch."     This  truth,  proclaimed  by   Aristotle,  is  universally 


Intellectual  Characters — Language.  433 

accepted  at  the  present  day.  Kvery,  one  acknowletlgcs  that 
speech  is  one  of  the  higliest  attributes  of  the  human  species. 
Lavfjuafjf^,  that  is  to  say,  the  various  forms  assumed  by 
speech  amours  the  <litVtrcnt  human  races  and  their  sub- 
divisions, liavo,  on  tliis  accojint,  a  sejiarato  it)ip(»rtancc  as 
(lit^errntial  characteristic  facts. 

Without  being  a  bnguist,  the  anthropologist  can  \\v\\  avail 
himself  of  the  results  obtained  by  philology,  and  compare 
tiiem  with  those  obtained  by  the  study  of  physical  cha- 
racters. When  by  two  such  ditU'erent  methods  we  arrive  at 
the  same  conclusions,  we  are  evidently  very  probably  in  the 
right. 

While  giving  the  detailed  history  uC  the  ditVerent  races 
in  my  course  of  lectures  at  the  Paris  Mtise»mi,  I  was  often 
ohiiged  to  extend  considerably  the  comparison  whiCh  I  have 
just  mentioned.  I  have  almost  invariably  found  the  most 
striking  resemblance  between  descriptive  philology  and 
anthropology.  When,  as  an  exception  to  this  rule,  we  find 
a  want  of  resemblance,  or,  better  still,  a  contrast,  sucli  as 
tliat  which  exists  lictwei-n  the  physical  characters  and  the 
hmguagc  t»f  the  Bascpies,  when  compared  with  the  neigh- 
bouring population,  the  problem  always,  as  in  their  ca.se, 
presents  special  difticulties,  from  whattver  point  of  view  it  is 
aj>proaehed. 

It  it  more  es|K'cially  amongst  the  mixed  races  that  the 
.reneral  agreement  which  I  have  mentioned  is  exhibited. 
Lan<'ua<:e  often  betravs  at  once  the  mixture  of  races,  their 
succession,  and  the  nature  of  the  influence  exercised  by  the 
ditVerent  elements  which  have  assisted  in  their  formation. 
I  will  here  give  a  striking  example. 

All  polygenists  have  regarde<l  the  Malays  as  one  of  their 
human  ftpecicH ;  many  monogenists  have  considered  them  as 
one  of  the  principal  races.  I  showed  long  ago  that,  in 
reality,  they  are  only  a  mixed  race  in  which  white,  black 
and  yellow  elements  are  a.vsociate<l,  and  that  they  arc  closely 
allied  to  the  Polynesians.  These  facts  become  more  striking 
every  day  as  we  know  more  of  these  two  families  which  have 


434  The  JIuDiaiL  Species. 

sprung  from  a  comtnoq  stock.  And  fuiLlur,  as  wo  stiuly 
more  thoroughly  the  liistory  of  these  countries,  we  find  that 
the  rehitions  betwcL-n  tlic  insuhir  ami  the  continental  regions 
must  have  been  much  closer  than  it  was  long  thought  could 
ever  have  been  the  case.  Such  are  the  results  arrived  at  by 
anthropology. 

On  the  other  hand,  philologists  liave  only  been  able  to 
form  one  linguistic  family  from  all  the  Malayan  and 
INjIynesian  languages,  when  considered  from  a  ijraiumatical 
]joint  of  view.  As  to  vocahular>/,  the  following  are  the 
results  given  by  Ritter. 

The  Malay  language  comprises  in  every  100  words — 

')()  Polynesian  words,  all  answering  to  a  very  inferior  social 
condition,  only  designating  arts  and  objects  for  which  all 
languages  liave  names  (heaven,  earth,  moon,  mountain,  liand, 
eye,  etc.). 

27  Mahayan  words,  giving  evidence  of  a  more  advanced 
civilization,  and  of  the  existence  of  arts  already  in  a  state  of 
perfection  (kriss). 

IG  San.scrit  words  expres.sing  religious  ideas  and  abstract 
terms  (time,  cause,  wischjm,  etc.). 

5  Arabian  words  relating  to  mythology,  poetry,  etc. 

2  Javanese,  ])ravi(lian,  Persian,  Portuguese,  Dutch  or 
Englisli  words,  all  relating  t(^  commerce. 

We  see,  therefore,  that  tiie  language  of  the  Malays  explains, 
Ko  to  speak,  under  another  form,  the  same  facts  as  their 
physical  characters, 

IV.  Although  a  naturalist,  ami  tliticlore  hal)ilually  dis- 
posed to  attribute  to  the  characters  drawn  from  physical 
man  a  preponderating  importance,  1  cannot  allow  that  this 
KU[)eriority  is  absolutely  constant.  There  are  some  facts 
wiiich  speak  too  strongly.  Had  it  not  been  for  their  special 
language  no  imv.  would  have  hesitated  to  consider  the 
lia.urpics  OS  belonging  to  the  same  family  as  other  Southern 
lOuropeans,  Had  their  special  doliehocophaly  been  dis-" 
covered,  a.s  it  h;is  been  by  M.  Pn^ca,  no  one  would  have 
thought  of  making  them  aUophjlian  tvhitca.     It  is  the  same 


Intellectual  Characters — Language.         435 

with  the  peoples  of  the  Caucasus,  wlio  were  long  considered, 
entirely  on  account  of  their  physical  characters,  as  the  pure 
stock  of  White  European  populations.  We  must,  therefore, 
ackuowleiL'e  that  in  sonic  cases  Ian<'uajre  has  a  characteristic 
importance  superior  to  that  of  external  features  and  anato- 
mical facts,  or,  at  least,  that  it  furnishes  indications  mure 
readily  understood. 

This  alternation  of  value  between  certain  characters  will 
cause  no  surprise  to  naturalists  who  are  familiar  with  the 
results  of  modein  zoology.  They  know  that  it  is  the  same 
with  animal  species.  In  the  vcrtebrata  the  respiratory 
organs  furnish  characters  of  the  first  order,  which  are 
ihnnimint :  in  annelids,  and  in  secondary  types  in  which 
this  function  is  less  rigorously  localized,  families,  perfectly 
similar  in  other  respects,  have  the  branchia  very  highly  deve- 
loped or  altogether  wanting.  In  their  case  the  characters 
drawn  from  the  respiratory  organs  are  evidently  secondary 
and  subordinate.  If  this  is  the  case  between  dl[lerent 
species  and  different  groups,  we  must  not  be  surprised  if, 
with  still  greater  reason,  it  should  bo  the  same  between 
different  races. 

V.  In  anthropological  applications  of  the  science  of  lan- 
guage, every  one  will  allow  that  far  more  importance  must 
be  attributed  to  grammar  than  to  vocabulary;  it  is  clear  that 
it  cannot  be  otherwise.  But  have  we  not  in  certain  cases, 
despised  too  much  the  information  which  may  be  derived 
from  the  latter  ?  The  results  to  which  Young  has  arrived  from 
the  calculation  of  probabilities  may,  it  seems  to  me,  be  very 
aptly  <pioted  here.  The  object  of  the  illustrious  author  wjus 
to  discover,  how  many  similar  words  in  two  ditVerent  lan- 
guages were  ncces.sauj'  to  authorize  us  in  considering  these 
wonls  as  having  belonged  to  the  same  language.  Frotn 
these  calculations  it  appears  that  the  common  possession  of 
one  word  lias  no  meaning.  But  the  probability  of  unity  of 
origin  is  already  three  to  one  when  there  are  two  words 
common  to  both  ami  more  than  ten  to  one  when  there  are 
three.     When  the  number  of  words  common  to  both  is  six, 


436  The  Human  Species. 

the  probability  is  more  tlian  1,7<)(),  and  almost  100,IMH)  when 
there  are  eight. 

It  is,  therefore,  ahnost  certain  that  (^ight  words  common  to 
two  different  languages  have  originally  belonged  to  the  same 
langu.ige,  and  when  isolated  in  the  midst  of  a  language  to 
which  they  do  not  belong  must  be  regarded  as  haported. 
These  conclusions  of  the  learned  Englishman  are  of  extreme 
importance.  They  tend  to  make  anthropologists  regard  the 
relations  between  various  peoples  in  a  different  manner  from 
that  to  which  many  anthropjologists  have  been  accustomed, 
and  force  us  to  admit  the  existence  of  conununications  which 
we  should  otherwise  be  inclined  to  doubt. 

VI.  Whilst  fully  recognising  the  undoubteil  importance  of 
linguistic  characters,  we  must  not  trust  to  them  entirely  as 
guitles  in  the  estimation  of  ethnological  relations.  A  lan- 
guage may  become  extinct  and  be  replaced  upon  the  same 
spot.  The  mere  linguist  would  then  assume  the  annihilation 
of  a  race  (»r  pcjpulation  which  was  in  reality  lluurishing. 
This  was  tiie  ca.se  with  the  Canary  Islanders.  The  descen- 
dants of  the  (Juanclu's  having  all  adopted  the  Spanish 
language,  it  was  thought  that  liny  no  longer  existed,  till 
iM.  Berthelot  showed  that  in  reality  they  iormed  the  basis 
of  the  population  of  the  whole  archipelago. 

\'ll.  Moiiogeiiisni  and  i)ol\<:enisin  have  fou'dit,  and  are 
still  fighting  upon  linguistic  as  well  as  upon  organogra])hical 
ground.s.  'J'hus  it  has  very  often  happi'ued  that  tlu;  .scientific 
(piestion  has  been  obscined  by  considerations  enlin-ly  foreign 
to  science;  ami  with  the  less  rca-son  as  the  opposed  doctrines 
have  really  less  connection  with  this  subject  than  has 
generally  bien  sujiposed, 

¥u)U\  a  linguistic  point  of  view  the  problem  may  be  stated 
in  ti)e  following  terms: — Was  there  in  times  past,  a  single 
priujitive  language,  from  which  all  languages,  living  or  dea<l, 
have  Hprung  ?  Or  rather,  have  languages  existed,  and  d(» 
languages  still  exist,  which  cannot  be  traced  to  a  roiiuuon 
origin  ? 

We  shall  at  once  understand  lie-  n  ply  of  the  polygenistic 


Intellect  iia  I  C/ia  meters — L  a  ho  nage.         437 

]>Iiilol()«ri.st.  Arguing  from  tlic  ditferenccs  by  which  certain 
families  of  hmguages  are  separated,  they  declare  them  to  be 
irreduclhh',  and  with  (-rawfurd,  M.  Hovolaccjue,  and  otliors, 
state  their  belief  "  in  the  original  phirality  of  the  races  which 
h;»ve  been  formed  with  them."  On  the  other  hand,  this 
irreducibility  is  denied  by  Max  Miillcr,  who,  without  as  yet 
aHirniing  the  existence  of  a  primitive  language,  allows  us  to 
see  that,  in  his  opinion,  all  ])hiIolt)gical  researches  are  tending 
to  the  demonstration  of  this  fact 

Being  a  complete  stranger  to  studies  of  this  nature,  I 
cannot  express  an  opinion  upon  special  questions.  I  shall 
confine  myself  to  the  statement  of  some  general  facts,  and  to 
pointing  out  the  sense  in  which  they  seem  to  me  to  claim 
most  attention. 

This  irreducibility,  upon  which  the  polygenistic  philologists 
rely,  recalls  the  argument,  which  is  based  upon  physical  cha- 
racters, and  consists  in  contrasting  the  Negro  with  the  White. 
This  argument  long  possessed  a  certain  appearance  of  strength, 
which  it  has  lost  as  more  numerous  intervening  links  were 
iiiscovered  between  these  two  extremes.  It  seems  to  me 
that  the  general  progress  of  philology  is  tending  to  the  same 
result.  All  linguists  now  place  side  by  side  languages  whieh 
would  have  been  considered  irreducible  at  the  begimiing  of 
the  century. 

A  certain  nund>er  of  languages  may  remain  i.solated  with- 
out this  fact  affording  any  evidence  against  the  spirific  imity 
of  man.  In  all  philologieal  .schools  it  is  acknowh-dged  that 
languages  are  variable  and  perishable.  Now  we  do  not  know 
all  the  dead  languages,  and  if  some  of  the  links  in  the  chain 
are  wanting  it  will  at  once  be  evident  that  relations  which 
formerly  existed  have  been  lost  to  us  for  ever. 

Let  anyone,  moreover,  refer  to  the  observations  of  Lublxx'k 
u[Min  roots,  antl  he  \vill  at  once  admit  that  a  certain  number 
auKtng  them  can  .scarcely  be  common  to  all  languages. 
Those  who  hold  that  language  is  not  of  divine  origin,  but  a 
human  invention  and  creiUion,  cannot  helj)  adopting  the 
conclusions  of  the  learned  Englishman  oji  this  point.     Now. 


438  The  Ilmnan  Species. 

however  few  llicsc  radical  ditfercnccs  may  be,  they  necessarily 
involve  irreducibility,  which  cannot,  however,  on  that  account 
bo  invoked  as  an  argument  against  monogenism. 

In  support  of  this  conclusion,  I  am  fortunate  enough  to  be 
able  to  appeal  to  the  testimony  of  a  judge,  both  competent 
and  trustworthy.  Whitney,  in  his  work  upt)n  "  The  Life  of 
Language,"  lias  examined  the  same  question.  With  Craw- 
furd  and  M.  Hovelacipie,  the  American  linguist  admits  that 
there  are  linguistic  families  which  cannot  be  referred  to  a 
common  origin.  He  does  not,  however,  stop  at  the  bare 
fact ;  he  demonstrates  and  dij;cusses  the  causes  of  it.  He 
then  gives,  in  the  following  term.s,  the  general  conclusion  of 
this  discussion  :  "  The  incompetency  of  the  science  of  philo- 
logy to  decide  upon  the  unity  or  diversity  of  human  races 
appears  to  be  completely  and  irrevocably  demonstrated." 

However  this  may  be,  the  results  thus  acquired  bring  to 
light  a  fact,  the  importance  of  which  ought  not,  it  seems  to 
me,  to  be  overlooked.  Taking  as  guide  the  work  of  a  man 
who.se  competency  is  above  dispute,  arranging  the  tables  of 
the  lingui.stic  families  admitted  by  M.  Maury,  and  repre- 
Hcnling  by  lines  the  rehitions  pointed  out  by  this  learned 
writer,  we  see  that  there  exists  between  one  language  and 
another  an  inUrcivsniiif/  of  chardcd'rs  extremely  analogous 
to  that  which  I  have  .so  often  jiointed  out  in  human  groups. 
No  one  has  supported  the  hypothesis  of  the  multiple  origins 
of  langu.'iges  mon;  resolutely  than  Agassiz.  Ju  the  nuinoir, 
which  1  attacked  from  a  geographical  point  c»f  view,  ho 
expressed  him.self  very  clearly  upon  this  point.  Siuci'  then 
he  has  developed  the  satne  idea.s.  I  have  already  sn'id  that, 
in  his  ojiinion,  nuuikiud  was  created  by  luitums,  that  each 
received,  with  its  ])hysical  features,  its  particular  language, 
developed  in  every  direction,  and  just  as  characteristic  as  the 
voice  of  an  anini.'d  species.  I  feel  it  necessary  to  insist  upon 
thi.s  fH>int  Ihtc,  and  to  (|iiol"-  the  text  itself:  "Let  anyone 
follow  upon  a  map,"  says  Agassiz,  "the  geographical  di.s- 
Iribution  of  the  bear,  the  felida-,  the  ruminants,  the  gal- 
linacco!,  or  of  any  other  family:   we  can  prove,  willi  just  as 


Intellectual  Chai-actcrs — Language.  439 

much  evidence  as  any  philological  research  can  fur  Innnan 
languages,  that  the  growling  of  the  bear  of  Kamschatka  is 
allied  to  that  of  the  bear  of  Thibet,  of  the  East  Indies,  of  the 
Sonda  Islands,  of  Nepaul,  Syria,  Euroix>,  Sil)eria,  the  Unikd 
States,  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  the  Andes.  Yet  all  these 
bears  are  consideretl  to  be  distinct  species,  having  in  no  way 
inherited  voice  from  each  other.  Nor  have  the  dilferc-nt 
liuman  races  done  so.  All  this  is  equally  true  of  the  crowing 
of  the  gallinacea',  of  the  quacking  of  duck.s,  as  well  as  of  the 
song  of  thrushes,  who  all  pour  forth  their  gay  and  harmonions 
notes,  each  in  their  own  dialect,  which  is  neither  inherited  nor 
derived  from  another,  although  all  sing  in  thnifih  language. 
Let  philologists  study  these  facts,  and  if  they  are  not  abso- 
lutely blind  to  the  signification  of  analogies  in  nature,  they 
w  ill  themselves  come  to  doubt  the  po.ssibility  of  placing  any 
confidence  in  philological  arguments  emjjloycd  to  prove 
genetic  derivation." 

Agassiz  is  logical,  and  he  exhausts  the  consecpiences  of  his 
theory.  But  he  forgets  one  important  fact  which  may  be 
opposed  to  all  those  who,  either  fully  or  jiartially,  embrace 
this  order  of  ideas. 

No  animal  species  has  ever  changed  its  voice  for  that  of  a 
species  nearly  allied  to  it.  An  a.ss's  colt,  reared  by  a  mare 
and  isolated  in  the  midst  of  horses,  never  forgets  its  bray  or 
learns  to  neigh.  While,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  well  known, 
that  a  White,  if  placed  in  earliest  infancy  in  the  midst  of 
Chinese  or  Australians,  will  only  .speak  their  lan^nia^e.  The 
converse  is  equally  true. 

The  rea.son  of  this  is  that  the  aitlmal  voice  is  a  funda- 
mental character,  adhering  evidently  to  the  nature  of  the 
being,  susceptible  of  slight  modification,  but  incapable  of  di.s- 
appearing,  or  of  tran.sference  as  a  whole  ;  it  is  a  s^vrZ/tc 
cliaractcr. 

Human  language  is  entirely  different.  It  is  c.s.sentially 
variable,  and  subject  to  modification  from  one  generation  to 
another;  it  is  subject  to  transformation;  it  borrows  and 
loses  ;  it  may  be  replaced  by  another  ;  it  is  evidently  sub- 


440  TJie  Huvian  Species. 

ordinate  to  the  intelligence  ami  to  the  conditions  of  life. 
We  can  only,  therefore,  ve,t,'ard  it  as  a  secondary  character ; 
a  chavacfo'  of  race. 

From  the  linguistic  point  of  view,  the  specific  attribute  of 
man  is  not  the  special  lavgiuKje  which  he  employs,  it  is  the 
faculty  of  articulation,  speech,  -which  has  given  him  the 
power  of  creating  a  primitive  language,  and  to  vary  it  in- 
finitely by  means  of  his  intelligence  and  will,  mure  or  less 
influenced  by  innumerable  circumstances. 

Here,  again,  I  am  fortunate  enough  to  be  able  to  support 
opinions,  which  I  have  long  maintained,  by  the  conclusions 
of  Whitney  upon  this  point.  "  Now,"  says  this  learned 
linguist,  "to  pretend,  in  order  to  explain  the  variety  of 
languages,  that  tlie  power  of  expression  has  been  virtually 
dillerent  in  diflerent  races,  that  one  language  has  contained, 
from  its  origin  and  in  its  primitive  materials,  a  formative 
principle  which  is  not  in  others  ;  tliat  the  elements  employed 
for  a  fbrtnal  usage  were  formal  by  nature,  and  so  on, — all 
this  is  pure  mythology." 

VIII.  General  rchttioHs  hi'tvmi  lain/utir/rn  (uid  huinan 
racea.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  human  langiiages  may 
be  traced  to  three  fundamental  groups;  the  fust, monosyllabic, 
or  isolating  languages  ;  the  second,  agglutinative,  or  suffix 
lanLTuaf^es  ;  the  third,  inMectionul  languages.  Thus,  there 
are  three  linguistic  types,  as  there  are  also  three  physical 
types.  It  will  not  be  withotit  interest  to  discover  what 
relations  are  displayed  by  the-  characters  drawn  fnun  these 
two  orders  of  considerations, 

'i'he  monosvllabic  languages  represent  IIm;  most  rudi- 
mentary eondilion  of  human  language,  which,  mortMtver,  has 
oidy  arrived  at  inflection  alter  passing  thidugh  the  period  (»f 
agglutination.  Considered  from  this  j)oint  of  view,  languages 
have  arrived  at  perfection  by  tlegrees,  and  it  is  only  natural 
U)  inquire  if  the  general  degree  of  elevation  of  races  corre- 
s|Min(ls  with  that  of  the  development  of  language. 

Frctm  a  comparison  of  the  re,sidt,s  of  philological  and 
physical  stutlics,  it  is  at  once  evident  that  this  is  not  the 


Intellectual  CJiaraclers — Lauouage.         441 

ca.se.  Cliiiiesi',  the  most  nioiKisylhibic  lanjjfuago,  is  sfKjken 
l>y  one  of  the  earliest  civili/.<-»l  nations,  belonging  funda- 
mentally to  the  yellow  type.  Trihe.s  lioMing  the  lowest 
place,  springing  from  the  Negro  type,  speak,  on  the  contrary, 
agglutinative  languages,  that  i.s  to  8;iy,  have  attained  the 
.second  .stage.  I  have  already  pointed  out  this  fact,  and 
insisted  upon  the  consequences  which  ari.se  from  it  with 
reference  to  the  relative  antiquity  of  human  groups. 

Nevertheles.s,  we  must  remark  that  the  greater  number  of 
Whites  speak  languages  whicli  have  attained  the  highest 
degree  of  perfection — inflectional  languages.  Allophylian 
Whites,  alone,  are  still  in  the  agglutinative  stage. 

If,  after  having  read  the  information  which  is  given  by 
jihilologists  upon  the  distribution  of  races,  we  look  at  the 
map,  we  shall  again  meet  with  some  very  interesting 
general  facts. 

Mono.syllabic  langiniges  are  only  found  in  Asia,  as  it  were 
localized,  and  only  occupy  a  very  limited  space.  They  were 
at  one  time  even  restricted  to  a  kind  of  island,  bounded  by 
the  sea  on  the  cast,  and  on  all  other  sides  by  agglutinative 
languages.  It  is  entirily  due  to  the  Aryan  con«|uest  that 
they  have  been  placed  in  contact  with  inflectional  lan- 
guages. 

The  latter,  now  universally  distributetl,  were  for  a  long 
time  confined  to  the  old  continent,  of  which,  moreover,  they 
were  far  from  occujiying  the  greatest  part.  Their  expansion 
dates  from  the  great  mo<lern  di.scoveries. 

L;u»guages  of  intermediate  development,  the  agglutinative 
l.mguage.s,  occupied  before  this  epoch,  liS  they  still  <\k),  the 
larger  |)ortion  of  the  surface  of  the  globe.  We  do  not  know 
at  what  perioil  they  lost  grotind  in  Eiuope,  but  we  c;in  already 
almost  assert  jus  a  fact,  that  they  preilominated  there  in  former 
times.  They  probably  occupied  the  whole  of  this  part  of  the 
world  bifore  the  Aryan  inva-sion  or  infiltration.  I\  ihaps  they 
were  spoken  by  quaternary  man.  However  this  may  be,  be- 
fore the  great  and  quite  recent  eniigi^ations  of  European  races, 
agglutinative  languages  reigned  throughout  the  greater  part 


442  The  Ihiman  Species. 

of  Asia,  .ilino.st  tlic  wliulc  of  Africa,  and   all  America  and 
Oceania. 

In  pointing,'  out  approximately  the  areas  occupied  by  the 
three  fundamental  groups  of  languages,  we  find  that  the 
agglutinative  languages  alone  occupied  but  a  short  time  ago 
about  I?  of  the  earth's  surface,  inflectional  languages  -J-,  and 
monosyllabic  languages  yV;  or  nearly  yVir.  tVit  ^'^"^  iioo- 

Agglutinative  languages,  again,  have  the  advantage  over 
the  others  in  number.  Finally,  the  number  of  nations, 
peoples  or  tribes,  speaking  these  languages,  is  also  superior 
to  that  of  the  groups  which  speak  monosyllabic  or  inflectional 
languages. 

But  it  is  well  known  how  slight  a  relation  there  is  be- 
tween the  population  of  a  country,  and  either  its  extent 
or  the  number  of  human  groups  by  which  it  is  peopled. 
\\\  order  to  gain  an  idea  of  the  importance,  or  of  the  jiart 
played  upon  the  surface  of  the  globe,  by  one,  or  by  a  group 
of  languages,  Ave  must  calculate  the  nmnber  of  individuals 
by  whom  it  is  used.  Now,  in  comparing  statistical  and 
linguistic  data,  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  M.M.  d'Omalius 
and  Maury,  wr  find  that  inflectional  languages  are  spoken 
by  5*i(),!M)(),()()()  human  beings  ;  monosyllabic  languagrs 
by  44{),0()(),0()()  ;  and  agglutinative  languages  only  by 
•2lf;,r)jO,()()(). 

IX.  Wrilhifj.  "Writing  is,  so  to  speak,  to  speech  what 
speech  is  to  thought.  Nevertheless,  by  its  very  nature  it 
furnishes  the  anthn»p<.logist  with  but  very  few  precise  data. 
Invented  in  a  very  limited  numbe-r  of  plaei'-*,  it  has  been 
communicated  from  place  to  place,  and  by  initiation.  lu 
their  pasH.-igo  from  one  nation  to  another,  the  graj)hic  re- 
jiresentations  of  languages  arc  often  sensibly  modified,  an<l, 
from  this  point  of  vi.-w,  they  may  undoubtedly  be  of  real 
jissisUmcc  to  ethnology.  J'ut  there  is  no  real  relation  be- 
tween the  several  forms  whieh  they  assume,  and  the  human 
gntups  by  which  they  are  employed. 

We  can  hardly  connect  with  writing  the  various  arrange- 
ments of  btorics  which  were  used  by  the  Mexican  Neophytes 


Intcllcitnal  Characters  —  Wriliufi.  443 

to  loe.ill  to  mcniory  tluir  prayers,  or  the  purely  mneino- 
tccliuiciil  process  observed  by  ditt'ercnt  travellers,  such  as  the 
^VamXmm  of  the  Red-Skins.  But  the  latter,  and  especially 
the  Chinese,  Thibetiuu  and  Peruvian  r2('/y)o.y,  were  something,' 
more  than  this.  Here  the  colour  and  the  mode  of  juxta- 
position of  straws,  shells,  or  wood,  the  knots  and  the  colour 
of  the  threads,  had  a  conventional  value  permitting  the  cx- 
pres.sion  of  ideas,  of  great  and  niultii)lc  numbers,  etc-  In 
Peru  it  seems  that  real  books  were  written  in  this  manner. 
Unfortunately,  as  M.  ^faury  remarks,  it  is  now  impossible  to 
decipher  these  singular  productions. 

Pictography,  even,  in  a  form  as  rudimentary  as  that  which 
existed  and  which  still  exists  among  the  Red  Skins,  where 
Schoolcraft  ha.s  studie«l  it  very  thoroughly,  wa.s  probably 
the  universal  starting  point  for  writing  properly  so  called. 
It  is  well  known  that  pictography  bears  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  our  rebus,  and  that  it  has  its  monuments,  which 
liave  been  di.scovered  by  several  travellers  in  Siberia,  North 
America,  the  ba.sin  of  the  Orinoco,  and  even  as  far  as  Pata- 
gonia. 

When  synd)olism  was  introduced  into  j)ict(>graphy,  it  would 
seem  that  a  step  had  really  been  made,  although  grave  errors 
may  result  from  this  manner  of  representing  events,  when  the 
sense  of  the  symbol  is  forgotten.  The  Virginians  represented 
the  Europeans,  their  .ships  and  arms,  by  a  ichite  tiicaii  voinit- 
h^O  fi^'^-  I'l'cre  was  here  evidently  the  germ  of  some  legend. 
This  observation  alone,  enables  us  to  comprehend  and  inter- 
pret sotne  of  the  traditions,  fabulous  in  form,  but  having  a 
foundation  of  truth,  which  have  been  collected  witli  reference 
to  the  pa,st  history  of  certain  American  tribes.  Neverthele.s.s, 
.synd>olism  has  the  advantage  of  accustoming  the  mind  to  «le- 
tach  itself  from  the  material  reproductions  of  objects.  It  i.s 
then  an  easy  matter  to  pa.ss  to  the  graphic  reduction  of  the 
symbol,  and  afterwards  to  the  idioi/nqthir  ttltjn.  At  length, 
spurred  on  by  the  stimulus  of  necessity,  ihc  phondie  sitjn  ia 
reached. 

Even  when  the  representation  of  the  syllable  is  attained, 


444  ^-^^^  Ihiman  Species. 

writing  lias  made  immense  progress.  It  seems  as  if  certain 
races,  in  spite  of  contact  witli  niorc  advanced  nations,  and 
though  they  may  have  before  their  eyes  examples  of  alpha- 
betic writing,  can  never  get  beyond  this.  So  at  least  it  is  at 
the  present  time  with  the  Cherokees  in  Florida  and  the  Vei 
on  the  coast  of  Africa.  Sequoyah  and  Doala  Biikara,  in 
their  eiforts  to  imitate  the  Yankees  and  Arabs,  only  invented 
spelling-books.  And  yet  the  papers  printed  by  the  former 
bore,  by  the  side  of  the  Cherokee  te.xt,  the  English  alphabetic 
translation. 

It  is  unneces.sary  to  insist  upon  the  immense  superiority  of 
alphabetic  writing.  This  means  of  fixing  speech,  at  once  so 
simple  and  so  complete,  has  always  presented  an  appear- 
ance of  the  marvellous  to  those  who  were  unacquainted  witli 
it ;  and  the  ancients,  struck  with  its  utility,  and  not  knowing 
that  man  had  gained  the  art  by  slow  stages,  did  not  hesitate 
to  regard  it  as  a  divine  invention.  Cicero  himself  seems 
inclined  to  share  this  opinion.  We  now  know  that  the  honour 
of  this  great  di.scovery  really  belongs  to  the  Phuinicians. 

liut  the  Pha*nieians  did  not  make  this  discovery  at  once 
or  by  their  own  efforts.  MM.  Wuttke  and  Lenormand  have 
rightly  given  the  honour  of  having  prepared  the  way  for, 
and  of  ;dmost  achieving  the  discovery,  to  the  Egyptians. 
Egyptian  writing,  with  its  figurative,  idiographic  and  phonetic 
signs,  displays  the  whole  course  traversed  by  tlie  human  mind 
in  rising  from  simple  pictography  to  the  ali)habet.  Unfor- 
tunately the  Egyptians,  fettered  by  the  combineil  influences 
of  their  j)ast,  and  by  the  very  ma.ss  of  ideas  and  facts  rcpre- 
senti'd  in  their  complicated  writing,  esjtecially  ])erhaps  by 
their  religious  traditions,  could  not  free  themselves  from  the 
cumbersome  element  in  their  Bystora  of  writing.  A  strange 
jM'ople,  fi-ee  from  these  restraints,  could  alone,  as  M.  Maurv 
has  remarked,  take  this  .step. 

Tlie  Phujnician  alphabet  once  discovered  spread  r.ipidly. 
At  the  Ham»'  time,  however,  it  necessarily  underwent  niodiH- 
rations  to  suit,  sometinurs  veritable  necessities,  sometimes 
Kiin[)lc  convenience  or  caprico.      M,  L'li'u  iii.iiid  admiis   five 


Intellectual  Characters — JVritinj^.  445 

great  families  of  writing,  as  represontinf(  tliis  filiation.  These 
are  tlie  Semitic,  CJreeo-Italian,  Western  or  Ilarian,  and 
Northern  or  Indo-homcritc.  The  latter,  perhaps,  owed  its 
origin  to  the  alphal)et  of  Yemen,  which,  intrmluced  into 
India  about  the  third  or  fourth  century  of  our  era,  has 
engendered  almost  all  the  Oriental  alpha])ets. 

Kgypt  and  PhoBnicia  were  not  the  only  centres  in  wliieh 
the  art  of  writing  took  its  rise.  It  also  came  into  existence 
in  the  Old  Worlil  in  Mesopotamia  and  China,  and  in  Me.xico 
in  the  New  World.  Hieroglyphic  writing,  itself  arising  out 
of  pictography,  has  been  the  universal  starting-point,  but  in 
each  case  writing  has  stopped  short  at  diflerent  stages. 

Cuneiform  writing  Ikls  not  attained  the  alphabet,  and 
seems  to  consist  of  a  mi.xturc  of  idiographic  and  syllabic 
signs.  In  China  writing  lias  remained  idiographic.  Under 
the  influences,  however,  of  Buddhist  mis^iunaries,  who  made 
known  the  Devjinagari  alphabet  in  the  extreme  East,  the 
Japanese  and  the  Coreans,  after  having  servilely  imitated 
the  Chinese,  were  the  first  to  reach  syllabism,  the  second  to 
attain  a  veritable  alphabet. 

In  Mexico,  writing  consisted  of  the  mixture,  still  very  con- 
fusetl,  of  symbolic,  idiographic  and  phonetic  signs,  the  latter 
representing,  in  some  cases  syllables,  in  others,  syiiple  letters. 
The  discoveries  made  by  TAbbii  Brasseur  de  Bourl)Ounr  seem 
to  indicate  that  in  Yucatan  greater  progress  had  been  made, 
and  that  the  Palan<iue  inscriptions  are  really  alphabetic.  It 
is  much  to  be  regretted  that  up  to  the  present  time  the 
important  facts,  for  which  we  are  imlebted  to  the  aged  cure 
of  Rabinal,  have  not  been  utiliztnl.  The  reading  of  the 
inscriptions  of  Central  America  would  have  a  very  difterent 
interest  to  the  deciphering  of  a  few  more  Egyptian  tablets. 
However  this  may  be,  it  is  evident  that  the  multij>licity,  the 
variety  of  alphabets,  and  even  their  filiation  furnish  the 
anthropologist  with  characters  of  great  importance,  and 
sju^cially  fitted  to  establish  ancient  relations  between  human 
groups  in  some  cases  widely  separated. 

X.  Social  condition.     Man  is  essentially  a  .social  being. 


44^  ^-^t'  Ili(}ua)i  Species. 

''  Were  any  one  to  ascend  to  heaven  alone,  ami  listen  alone 
to  the  harmony  of  the  spheres,  he  would  not  enjoy  these 
marvels,"  a  Greek  philosoiihcr  has  said.  Thus  we  find  the 
human  species  everywhere  collected  into  more  or  less 
numerous  societies.  In  exceptional  cases,  which  may  bo  gene- 
rally explained  by  a  violent  dispersion,  these  societies  always 
consist  of  a  more  or  less  considerable  number  of  families,  and 
deserve  at  least  the  desigiiati<jn  o(  j^eoples. 

However  limited  or  numerous  peoples,  tribes,  or  nations 
may  be,  the  existence  of  three  elementary  social  conditions 
has  long  been  acci'pted  as  a  fact,  each  of  which  is  connected 
with  the  satisfaction  of  the  first  and  most  imperious  of  all 
necessities,  that,  namely,  of  nourishment,  A  certain  grada- 
tion may,  moreover,  be  observed  in  tliesc  condilion.s.  Man  at 
first  only  depended  upon  daily  industry  for  his  subsistence  : 
he  hunted  either  terrestrial  or  aquatic  animals :  he  became 
a  hunter  or  a  fisiierman.  He  afterwards  brouglit  the 
herbivorous  species  luider  his  power,  and  found  an  unfailing 
resource  in  his  flocks  :  he  became  a  shepherd.  Finally  lie 
directed  his  attention  to  the  earth  ;  he  multiplied  and  culti- 
vated certain  })lants  which  he  learnt  to  know  by  experii-nce ; 
he  became  an  agriculturist.  Jn  tlu;  latter  case  his  diet 
would  be  fundamentally  vegetables;  in  the  two  former  flesh 
wtndd  fi)rm  the  basis  of  his  food. 

It  is  clear  that  these  several  kinds  of  existence  place  man 
unihr  very  different  conditions  of  lift',  and  impose  uj)on  him 
<■<  rfain  necessities,  by  demanding  the  development  of  physical 
and  intellectual  faculties  which  sometimes  bear  but  a  very 
slight  resendtlance  to  each  other.  ]n  this  manner  certfxin 
physical  and  intellectual  peculiarities  are  engeiideied,  which, 
devehjped  by  exercise  and  heredity,  liiially  l)c(Mnie  (  haractcrs 
of  races. 

The  huntt^r  and  fisherman  present  some  points  of  resem- 
blance in  their  manner  (jf  life.  Both  arc  obliged  to  display 
in  turn,  and  occswionrdly  at  the  same;  moment,  according  to 
the  animal  they  are  pursuing,  a  great  amount  of  patience  and 
courage  ;  they  must  never  be  at  u  loss  for  a  resource.     Uoth, 


Intellectual  Characters — Social  Condition.    447 

even  whni  placetl  in  the  most  fuvonrablc  circnn)stance.s,  pass 
alternately  from  extreme  activity  to  almost  complete  repose. 
But  the  fislierman's  field  of  action  is  on  the  whole  less  exten- 
sive than  that  of  the  hunter,  and  he  is  not  like  the  latter, 
forced  to  exercise  all  his  physical  faculties.  He  will  probably 
never  possess  the  same  delicacy  of  hearing,  or  the  same 
agility.  Moreover,  neither  of  them  are  ]>laced  in  conditions 
favourable  to  intellectual  development  properly  so  called. 

The  shepherd  is  much  more  independent  in  certain 
respects,  while  at  the  .same  time  he  is  subject  to  greater 
regidarity.  lie  is  always  sure  of  his  morrow.  The  daily 
duties  to  his  charge  once  fulfilled,  he  is  at  liberty  to  abandon 
himself  to  refiection  and  revery,  so  that  his  intellectual 
faculties  have  every  facility  for  development. 

This  is  still  more  strongly  the  case  with  the  agriculturist 
Seed-time  and  harvest  are  to  him  times  of  inevitable  physical 
activity.  Between  the  two  he  can  rest  at  leisure,  and  apply 
the  faculties  with  which  he  is  endowed  to  something  entirely 
ditferent. 

The.se  three  elementary  modes  of  human  society  involve 
immediate  con.sequences. 

Game,  in  the  true  acceptance  of  the  term,  is  nowhere  so 
abundant  as  to  afford  an  indefinite  amount  of  nouri.shificnt 
to  popidations,  however  small,  accumulated  upon  one  .spot. 
A  great  extent  of  country  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
hunter,  so  that  ho  can  only  form  very  limited  communities. 
As  soon  as  they  increase  in  size  they  are  forced  to  separate. 
Fishermen  may  form  larger  communities,  particularly  upon 
the  shore  of  a  productive  sea.  Even  in  their  case,  however, 
the  size  of  the  population  is  necessarily  confined  within  some- 
what narrow  limits. 

The  pa.storal  condition  allows  the  formation  of  more  nume- 
rous societies;  but  it  al.so  involves  the  existence  of  vast 
ti"acts  entirely  given  up  to  grazing.  Like  the  chase,  there- 
fore, though  in  a  less  degree,  it  enforces  sul)divisions. 

The   culture   of  the    soil    permits  the   development  of  a 
population  at  once  dense  and  continuous. 
20 


44^  The  Iluniaii  Species. 

The  hunter,  as  a  natural  consc(iUcncc  of  his  warlike  habits, 
is  inevitably  a  warrior ;  war  is,  in  fact,  nothing  more  than  a 
"  man-hunt."  Any  discussion  about  a  hunting-ground  may 
easily  result  in  war,  as  the  subsistence  of  the  hunter  is  in 
question.  This  war  would  be  conducted  without  mercy,  for 
every  pris(»ner  would  not  only  be  useless,  but  an  incvnnbranoc 
to  the  conqueror;  another  mouth  to  feed.  The  hunter  would 
kill  him,  and  however  little  may  be  due  to  passion  on  the 
one  hand,  and  pride  on  the  other,  he  will  put  him  to  death 
with  torments  endured  with  heroic  firmness. 

The  shepherd  also  will  often  be  involved  in  armed  con- 
flict, for  he  must  defend  his  pastures  and  his  flocks.  But,  in 
his  case,  war  will  be  le.ss  bitter;  the  prisoner  may  be  u.seful 
to  him.  He  can  be  forced  to  attend  to  the  flocks,  and,  in 
return,  be  fetl  witiiout  involving  any  sacrifice :  he  can  boa 
slave. 

Were  it  not  for  the  necessity  of  mutual  destruction,  which 
seems  to  be  innate  in  man,  and  which,  as  y<t,  civili/.ati«)n  has 
n(»t  been  abh?  to  extirpate,  agricultural  tribes  woiild  have  no 
cause  to  make  war  upon  each  other;  indeed,  it  would  be 
much  more  to  their  interests  to  avoid  it.  All  that  can  be 
.sai<l,  however,  is  that  in  their  cjvse  it  becomes  by  degrees  less 
cruel.  Here,  again,  the  ])ri.soner  can  bo  utilized.  He  is 
first  reduced  to  slavery.  Then  it  becomes  evident  that  a 
certain  amount  of  liberty  might  be  profitable  to  the  master, 
so  he  pa.sses  from  the  condition  (if  a  slave  to  that  of  a  serf. 

The  three  conditions  which  1  have  just  described  still  exist 
upon  the  gl<jbc  ;  and  in  each  of  the  three  great  types  of 
mankind,  examples  may  still  be  pointed  out  at  the  }»res('nt 
•lay.  The  ^Vhitc  tribes  of  the  north-west  coast  of  America 
an*  fiwherH ;  some  Arab  tribes  are  still  in  the  pastoral  state, 
through  which  the  Aryans,  the  progenitors  of  tiic  present 
Indians,  who  are  ho  essentially  agricultural,  have  pas.se<l. 
Am»»ng  the  Yellows,  the  'J'ungvi.scs  of  Daouria,  are  perhaj)s 
the  most  perfect  type;  of  a  hunting  pcoj)lc,  as  the  hordes  of 
C^'ntral  Asia  arc  of  a  KJicphcrd  peoj)le,  and  the  Chinese 
of  an    ngricultural   peoplr.     Finally,    among    tlie    Negroes, 


Intellectual  C/iaracters — Social  Condition.   449 

tlio  Tasmanians  were  exclusively  hunters  and  fisliei-s,  the 
Kaffirs  are  essentially  shej)herds,  and  the  natives  of  Guinea 
agriculturalists. 

Thus  the  fundamental  nature  of  the  social  c<»ndition  is  not 
a  character  of  race.  The  three  j)hysical  types  present  the 
three  social  types. 

From  this  fact  alone  we  might  conclude  that  between  the 
three  human  types,  regarded  from  the  point  of  view  of 
civilization,  there  are  none  of  those  radical  differences  whicli 
have  been  admitted,  d  itriori,  by  some  authors. 

This  conclusion  can  only  be  distinctly  shown  by  a  detailed 
study  of  the  races.  I  can  here  merely  state  it,  insisting 
upon  this  point  that,  in  spite  of  the  assertions  of  M.  do 
Gobineau  to  the  contrary,  there  still  exist  yih'ites  in  a  dis- 
tinctly savarje  state.  We  need  only  read  the  details  given  by 
Cook,  La  Perouse,  Meares,  Alarehand,  Dixon,  Dr.  Scouler, 
and  othci-s,  upon  some  Kolushes,  and  we  shall  be  forced  to 
recognise  the.se  Jinhcri*,  whose  women  besmear  themselves 
with  grease  and  soot,  and  wear  a  girdle,  ;vs  both  trnr  WItites 
and  tme  savages,  who  in  many  respects  must  rank  below 
the  Negro  of  Ardra  or  Juida. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  very  names  which  I  have  just 
mentioned,  especially  those  of  Ghanata,  Sonrhai  and  Melle, 
with  which  Barth  has  made  us  acquainted,  suflice  to  prove 
that  the  most  strongly  characterized  Negro,  the  lypual 
Noijro,  has  the  power  of  raising  himself  to  a  consi«lerabIy 
advanced  social  condition.  It  has  been  said,  that,  without 
being  a  sarage,  he  has  remained  a  bavhanan,  as  was  the 
case  with  our  German  or  CJaulish  ancestors.  This  view  is 
not  a  just  one  ;  the  Negro  has  risen  nmch  higher.  The 
annals  of  Amcd  Baba  show  that  in  the  Middle  Agi\s  the 
btxsin  of  the  Niger  contained  empires  very  little  inferior  in 
many  respects  to  European  kingdoms  of  the  same  eiwch. 

As  to  the  Yellow  races,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  rcmeml)cr 
that  the  whole  of  the  Aryan  race  was  plunged  in  barbarism 
at  the  time  when  China  was  acf^uainted  with  the  calendar, 
liad  dctcnnincd  the  form  of  the  earth,  and  recognised  the 


450  The  Human  Species. 

Hatteniug  of  the  poles,  had  woven  materials  in  silk,  and 
possessed  a  coinage. 

XL  Ought  we  to  conchide  from  these  and  from  many 
analogous  facts  which  I  cannot  quote,  that  there  exists  a 
perfect  equality  between  human  races,  that  they  all  possess 
the  same  aptitudes,  and  can  all  rise,  in  every  respect,  to  tlie 
same  dogi-ee  of  intellectual  development  ?  Nut  so,  for  this 
would  be  a  departure  from  the  truth,  and  an  evident  exaggera- 
tion. Here,  again,  we  must  return  to  the  comparison  of  man 
with  animals.  Does  it  follow  that,  because  all  the  races  of 
dogs  belong  to  one  and  the  same  species,  they  all  have  the 
same  aptitudes?  "Will  a  hunter  clioose  intlitTorently  a  .setter, 
or  a  blood-hound  to  use  as  a  pointer  or  in  the  chase  ?  Will 
he  consider  the  street-cur  as  of  equal  value  with  either  of 
these  pure-hreeds'f  Clearly  not.  Now  we  must  never  for- 
get that,  while  superior  to  animals  and  diflRn-nt  to  them  in 
many  respects,  man  is  equally  subject  to  all  the  general  laws 
of  animal  nature.  The  law  of  heredity  is  one  of  tho.so  from 
which  he  caniKtt  escape,  and  it  is  this  law  which,  under  the 
influence  of  the  conditions  of  life,  fashions  races  and  makes 
them  what  they  are. 

When  centuries  have  pa-s.sed  over  a  gi'oup  of  men,  when 
from  generation  to  generation,  and  under  the  influence  of 
certain  physicid,  intellectual  and  moral  conditions,  the  whole 
being  has  contracted  a  certain  habit,  we  cannot  form  any 
definite  idea  as  to  what  length  of  time  and  what  fresh  cir- 
cumstances would  be  necessary  to  cftace  this  impression  and 
form  the  race  anew.  In  any  case,  it  can  only  rise  by  imder- 
going  modifications,  and  this  fai-t  alone  prndn.t's  a  new  or 
a  derived  race. 

'J'he  result  of  all  the  conditidns  by  which  races  have  been 
formed  has  been  to  cstal)lish  between  them  a  2)rcsc}it  in- 
equality which  it  is  inq)ossiblo  to  deny.  Such,  however,  is 
the  extiggeration  into  which  iicr/ropkilea  by  profession  have 
fallen,  when  they  maintain  that  the  Negro  in  former  ages, 
and  in  li'm  "prcHcnt  omdltiun,  is  the  cfjiial  of  the  Whita 
A  sinjile  fact  will  be  a  suflicient  answer  to  them. 


Tntdlcctiial  Characters — Savagery.  451 

The  iliscoverics  of  Baith  liave  placed  beyond  a  shadow  of 
doubt  the  existence  of  a  jfolitival  history  among  tlie  Ne<'roes, 
which  had  previously  been  a  matter  of  doubt.  But  this  very 
fact  alone  only  serves  to  place  in  still  stronpfer  relief  the 
absence  of  tliat  intellectual  history  which  is  demonstrated 
by  a  general  progressive  movement,  by  literary,  architectural 
and  artistic  monuments.  The  Negro  race,  left  to  itself,  luis 
produced  nothing  of  this  kind.  An  attempt  has  been  made, 
in  order  to  disguise  this  too  manifest  inferiority,  to  refer  to 
the  Negro  race  those  peoples  of  black  colour,  who  can  only 
be  said  to  be  connected  with  it  by  crosses  in  which  the 
superior  blood  predominates. 

XII.  Must  we  therefore  pass  to  the  opposite  e.xtrcme,  and 
admit  that  there  are  races  radically  incapable  of  elevating 
them.selves  above  the  social  condition  in  which  their  ancestors 
have  lived  ?  This  question  has  often  been  proposed,  and  has 
been  answered  in  two  different  ways. 

The  attempt  lias  been  made,  by  means  of  a  certain  number 
of  facts  taken  from  America  and  Oceania,  as  well  as  from 
Africa,  to  show  that  certain  human  populations  were  irre- 
vocably destined  to  a  savage  condition.  The  upholders  of 
this  opinion  have  chiefly  (juoted  as  e.vamples  the  indigenous 
inhabitants  of  North  America  and  Australia.  Yet  whoever 
will  consider  the  matter  from  an  unprejudiced  point  of  view, 
will  see  at  once,  sometimes  in  the  very  facts  brought  forward 
by  those  who  depreciate  them,  a  clear  proof  tiiat,  pl<iced  in 
favourable  conditions,  these  races  would  be  able  to  raise 
thcm.selves  far  above  the  condition  in  which  we  have  found 
them,  and  wouhi,  in  some  respects  at  least,  very  quickly  reach 
our  level. 

As  far  as  tiie  Red-Skins  and  the  allied  groups  are  concerned 
all  doubt  has  l)een  di.ssipated  by  the  great  work  of  School- 
craft, and  several  rc2)ortn  since  publisheil. 

There  is,  at  the  present  day,  upon  the  banks  of  the  Cjittar- 
;^ugus,  an  agricultural  and  lalwrious  p.ipidaii(jn,  formed  from 
the  remnants  of  the  Iroquoi.s,  which  has  its  schools,  its 
printing  establishments,  and  its  journal.s.     It  i,s  useless  to 


452  The  Human  Species. 

insist  upon  what  the  Krcccks,  Chcrokees  and  Choctaws  have 
become.  We  know  that  these  nations  of  the  South  had,  of 
their  own  accord,  started  on  the  higli  road  of  settled  civiHza- 
tion,  that  they  cultivated  and  exported  cotton,  and  published 
journals  written  in  their  own  language,  and  printed  in  cha- 
ractei-s  invented  by  one  of  their  own  nation.  The  govern- 
ment of  Washington  drove  them  from  their  lands,  and 
transported  them  to  the  basin  of  the  Arkansas.  They  there 
set  themselves  to  work  again,  and  travellers  tell  us  that  some 
of  their  farms  even  rival  those  of  the  Yankees. 

But  in  reply  to  this  the  objection  will  be  made  that  tlie 
Algoncjuins  and  the  Dacotahs  have  resisted  every  attempt 
which  has  been  made  to  assimilate  them  to  Whites,  and  to 
civilization.  This  is  an  error,  or  rather  it  is  but  half  the 
truth,  and  for  this  very  reason  affords  important  inf<»rmation 
to  those  who  are  inclined  to  receive  it.  The  AlgoiKjuins 
{true  lial-Hkias),  and  the  Dacotahs  (Sioux)  separated.  Some 
renijunced  their  ancient  mode  of  life,  and  imitated  th.it  of 
the  Cherokces,  others  adhered  to  it ;  how  vaiiable,  then,  is 
this  supposed  indelible  character;  how  completely  subordinate 
to  a  thousand  insignificant  local  circumstances  ! 

In  fact,  nothing  has  taken  j)lace  with  regard  iv  the  Ameri- 
raii  Aborigines  which  could  not  also  be  observed  among 
Whites.  Side  by  h'hU'  with  the  Arab  of  the  towi),  dwells  the 
Arab  of  the  desert  and  the  tent.  In  the  same  manner  the 
natives  of  North  America,  when  left  to  themselves,  differed 
upon  certain  point.s.  In  the  basin  of  the  Rio  del  Norte, 
and  beyond  it,  side  by  .side  with  the  urban  and  agrieul- 
turul  inhabiUmts  of  the  puebloH,  dwelt  n(»mad.  and  hunting 
tril>es.  TJie  latter  sometimes  pillaged  the  former,  but 
they  dill  not  the  less  recogni.se  the  kinship  existing  between 
them. 

What  here  took  pla<-e  spontaneously  still  takes  place  under 
the  presHurc  of  the  White.  Is  there  anything  strange  in 
this?  In  every  ca.se  when  the  half  of  a  nation  transforms  its 
Kocial  con<lition,  we  cannot  draw  <mr  conclusion  from  the 
backwardness  of  the  other   half,  and  say  that   it  would  bo 


Intel  I  I  it  Hill  Cliaractcrs — Saviv^iry.  453 

inc.ap;il»le  of  doing  so  as  a  whole.  We  might,  with  c(jtial 
reason,  maintain  that  a  great  number  of  Europeans  were 
incapable  of  learning  to  read. 

There  remain  the  Australians. 

I  approach  this  subject  very  unwillingly.  In  no  part  «»f 
the  gh)bo  has  the  White  shown  himself  so  merciless  to- 
wards inferior  races  as  in  Australia;  nowhere  hivs  he  so 
audaciously  cahnnniated  those  whom  he  has  plundered  and 
exterminated.  In  his  opinion,  the  Australians  are  not  even 
men.  They  are  beings  "  in  whom  are  combined  all  the  worst 
characters  which  mankind  couhl  present,  at  many  of  which, 
monkeys,  their  congenci-s,  would  blush."  (Butler  Earp.) 
Noble  minds  have  doubtless  protested  against  these  terrible 
words,  addressed  to  convicts  who  were  about  to  seek  their 
fortunes  in  Australia ;  but  what  could  be  exjwcted  of  them 
when  every  evil  j)assion  was  called  forth  and  supported  by 
similar  arguments,  which,  again,  rested  upon  assertions  given 
as  scientific?  The  result  of  these  experiences  in  Australia 
and  Tasmania  is  well  known ;  and  those  who  wish  for  fuither 
information  have  only  to  consult  travellers  of  every  country, 
Darwin  as  well  as  Petit-Tliouars. 

To  maintain  at  the  present  day  that  the  Australians  are 
what  Bory  de  Saint-Vincent  antl  the  anthropologists  of  that 
school  endeavoured  to  prove  them  to  be,  is  to  ileny  unques- 
tionable facts  established  by  tnivellers  of  every  description. 
This  race  has  no  more  shown  itself  to  be  absolutely  savage 
than  any  other  human  race.  It  organisetl  the  family  and 
divided  the  tribe  and  nation  into  true  danx,  the  account  of 
which  is  still  extant.  The  Australians,  more  advanced  upon 
this  point  than  the  Tahitians,  understood  the  division  of  land 
amongst  themselves,  and  the  fixed  limits  agreed  upon  wen- 
religiously  respected,  except  in  time  of  war.  I  shall  sjieak 
about  their  religious  and  moral  chai-actei-s  at  another  time. 
We  have  here  only  to  consi«ler  their  intellectual  characters, 
and  I  shall  oidy  add  that  these  .siivages  |x>ssesse»l  villages  of 
from  HOO  to  KHK)  inhabiUmta,  that  they  knew  how  to  hollow 
out  canoes,  and  made   nets  for  hunting  and  fishing,  which 


454  ^-^^^  HtiDian  Species. 

-were  sometimes  80  feet  long  and  of  sufficient  strength  to 
resist  tlie  struggles  of  a  kangaroo. 

It  will,  however,  be  objected  that  all  this  does  not  consti- 
tute a  well  advanced  social  condition.  Granted  ;  but  are  the 
Australians  incapable,  as  it  has  so  often  been  said,  and  as  it 
still  is  asserted,  of  raising  themselves  above  this  condition  ? 

We  have  only  to  consult  the  writings  of  ])a\vson,  who 
made  a  kind  of  farmers  out  of  these  savages,  those  of  Salvado, 
who  found  them  to  be  both  devoted  and  useful  workmen, 
those  of  Blosseville,  declaring  that  he  thought  himself  fortu- 
nate to  be  able  to  turn  to  them  when  the  (jold  fever  robbed 
him  of  European  hands,  and  we  shall  be  convinced  of  the 
inaccuracy  of  the  assertions  made  on  the  subject  of  the 
radical  incapacity  of  the  Australians.  Finally,  if  we  still 
retain  some  feeling  of  doubt,  we  need  only  look  back 
upon  those  tribes  which  were  settled  and  civilized  by 
William  IJuckley,  the  deserter,  and  we  shall  be  forced  to 
allow  that  the  faculty  of  raising  themselves  above  their  past 
condition  exists  among  the  Australians  as  among  other 
human  populations. 

Xlll.  There  are  two  causes  which  tend  to  had  us  into 
error  when  we  arc  dealing  with  the  question  of  the  apprecia- 
tion of  the  social  condition  of  races. 

The  first  arises  from  the  manner  in  which  wo  regard,  as  a 
whole,  the  population  to  which  we  belong.  The  offspring  of 
instructed  and  civilized  clas-scs,  we  forget  that  part  of  the 
nation  which  we  left  so  far  behind,  which  doubtless  profits 
by  the  work  of  tiic  intelligent  clas.scs,  but  docs  not  follow 
tht-m  at  all,  or  but  very  little,  in  the  path  of  progress.  There 
i.s  not  a  country  in  Europe  where  numbers  of  facts,  justifyiii'^ 
what  I  have  briefly  stated  here,  may  not  be  met  with.  It 
Lubbock  had  taken  more  notic(>  of  the  fact.s  around  hitn,  In 
would  mo^-i   < .  It  liiijy  have  modified  many  conclusiotis  in  his 

iKXjk. 

The  other  cause  proceeds  from  our  j)ride  of  race,  from  the 
I»r<judiceH  of  our  education,  which  altogether  prevent  us  from 
going  to  the  root  of  the  matter,  and  from  recognising  extreme 


Intellectual  C/ia^'actei's — Savage jy.  455 

resemblances,  almost  identities,  if  they  arc  in  the  least  degree 
obscured  by  the  slightest  ditference  of  forms  or  words.  It 
was  a  long  time  before  the  resemblance  was  observed  between 
the  organisation  of  the  Maories  and  that  of  the  ancient 
Scotch.  And  yet  if  we  deduct  anthropophagy  from  the  one 
people  and  from  the  other  all  that  it  has  borrowed  from  the 
neighbouring  nations,  we  shall  be  forced  to  admit  that  at  the 
perioil  when  Cook  visited  the  New  Zealandei-s,  the  latter 
offered  strange  p» tints  of  resemblance  to  the  Highlanders  of 
Rob  Roy  and  Mac  Ivor.  As  to  the  Children  of  the  Mint, 
akin  to  the  other  Scotch  clans,  were  they  nnich  above  the 
Australian  tribes  ? 

We  must  conclude,  therefore,  that  civilization,  with  im- 
provements and  learning  of  every  kind,  is  an  exceptional 
fact,  even  in  the  midst  of  a  most  privileged  people,  and  that 
upon  their  own  territory  they  have  had,  and  still  have,  their 
savage  representatives.  We  must  add  that  this  fact  is 
exhibited  in  different  degrees  among  yellow  and  black  tribes. 
Lastly,  in  reflecting  upon  our  past  history,  we  must  avoid 
denying  to  other  races  aptitudes,  which  remained  latent  for 
centuries  in  our  ancestors  before  they  were  developed,  and 
which  are  still  in  the  same  condition  in  too  many  of  our 
fellow-countrymen,  and  of  our  contemiX)rarie.s. 

XIV.  In  his  remarkable  work  upon  OriijiiM  of  Civilization, 
Sir  John  Lubbock  admit-s  that  the  "  primitive  condition  of 
man  was  a  state  of  (ib-solutc  Ixirlntrittm."  But  he  docs  not 
say  what  he  means  by  this  expression.  Have  there  indee«l 
ever  been  men  living  for  centuries  in  the  state  dcpictoii  in 
Chinese  traditions,  men  acknowletlging  no  law,  ilcstitute  of 
industry,  ignorant  of  the  use  of  fire,  abandoning  their  dead 
without  sepulture,  living  in  trees.  .  .  .  ?  There  is  every 
reason  to  doubt  it,  for  all  establishetl  facts  protest  against 
this  conclusion. 

Whenever  it  ha-s  l)een  possible  to  attain  even  a  slight 
knowledge  of  the  life  of  savage  tribes,  they  have  been  found 
subject  to  lau'.s,  which,  although  not  written,  are  still  rigor- 
ously observed.     This  fact  is  proclaimed  by  Lubbock  himself. 


45^  The  I  I  ID)  hi  1 1  Species. 

True,  these  laws  111.13'  often  appear  to  us  initjuituus  or  bar- 
barous, but  sometimes  there  is,  even  in  their  severities 
towards  certain  chisses  of  the  jjopuhition,  a  trace  of  the  most 
just  and  praiseworthy  seutitnents.  We  cannot  indeed  approve 
of  the  Aualral'ian  code  as  regards  the  enactions  which  make 
a  miserable  slave  of  the  woman ;  the  privileges  which  it 
reserves  to  the  chiefs  are  perhaps  excessive  ;  but  how  can  we 
help  being  struck  -when  we  see  it  grant  to  age  the  same 
advantages  as  to  rank.  Respect  for  old  age  was  a  feature  in 
the  manners  of  the  Spartans  which  met  with  the  admiration 
of  the  Athenians;  we  may  well  recognise  its  value  in  the 
Australians. 

Mention  has  sometimes  been  made  of  races  or  p(»i)ulations 
ihvelling  in  trees,  such  as  the  Orang-Kubus,  certain  Blacks 
of  New  Guinea,  etc.  They  have  been  described  as  making 
their  liomcs  in  trees  after  the  manner  of  monkeys.  Earle 
lias  reduced  these  exaggerations  to  their  tnie  value.  He  has 
shown  that  upon  certain  coasts,  lined  with  a  belt  of  man- 
groves, it  is  easier  to  walk  upon  the  crowded,  interlaced 
branches,  than  to  force  a  passage  along  the  network  of  aerial 
roots  plunging  into  a  bed  of  mud.  He  saw  European  sailors 
several  times,  with  their  muskets  slung,  passing  over  marshes 
of  this  nature  in  single  file,  in  the  same  way  lus  the  Indians. 
We  see,  therefore,  that  it  is  not  at  all  necessary  to  be  abso- 
lutely savage  and  marly  allied  to  nwtnkeys  to  travel  in  this 
manner. 

The  Tasmanians,  as  good  an  example  of  a  nomad  people 
as  it  would  be  possibh;  to  inrntioii,  oidy  erected  temporary 
shelters,  and  yet  they  buiiil  th(  ir  dead,  and  raised  to  them 
mauHohiims  of  brancliis  and  hark,  which  have  been  de- 
Hcribed  an<l  figimd  by  I'eron.  1  have  just  remarked  that 
the  Australians  ha<l  their  institutions  and  their  industries. 
Undoubte<lly  in  T.xsmania  anil  Australia  man  is  exhibited 
with  the  smallest  amount  of  human  development.  And 
yet  we  nowlioro  observe  that  tihsohUe  bdrhnrixm  wlii(  h  is 
.'ipparently  admitted  by  the  leariietl  Englishnjan. 

However  far  we  go   back  into  our  ]>ast  history  we  shall 


Intellectual  Characters — Industries.         457 

meet  with  similar  facts.  The  little  that  we  know  of  tertiary 
man  shews  him  to  be  in  possession  of  fire  and  the  art  of 
cutting  Hints.  He  already  has  his  industries,  and  this  fact 
alone  proves  that  his  niudc  of  lile  was  diflerent  to  that  of 
the  hrutc. 

It  could  not  be  otherwise.  Whatever  the  cause  may  have 
been  which  determined  the  appearance  of  man  upon  the  surface 
of  the  globe,  he  has,  from  the  first,  always  been  in  po.s.se.ssion 
of  his  specific  nature.  He  has  had  from  the  out.set  his  intel- 
ligence and  his  aptituilcs  which,  though  at  that  time  in 
a  torpid  and  slumbering  state,  were  ready  to  start  into  life 
under  the  spur  of  necessity.  To  procure  nourishment  and  to 
defend  himself  against  the  external  world,  he  could  only  have 
recourse  to  them,  and  the  smallest  manifestations  of  these 
superior  faculties  have  of  neces.sity  traced  from  the  com- 
mencement a  line  of  demarcation  between  him  and  the  brute. 

XV^.  The  intelligence  and  the  aptitudes  of  man  have  mani- 
fested themselves  in  a  thousand  ways,  which  may  be  included 
under  the  general  name  of  iiulimtries.  Pacific  or  war- 
like, relating  to  the  individual  or  to  the  whole  population, 
tbey  very  often  differ  in  different  races,  in  different  peoples, 
sometimes  almost  in  diffrrent  tribes.  The  greater  numln-r 
may  consequently  be  consiih-reil  ns  so  many  chunu'tem  by 
which  the  different  gioups  of  the  human  species  may  be 
distinguished.  It  will,  however,  at  once  bo  undeii^tootl  that 
(juestions  of  this  nature  can  only  be  discussed  in  a  detailed 
history,  and  I  must  here  confine  myself  to  stating  one  of 
those  general  facts  which,  by  themselves,  are  sufficient  to 
separate  man  from  animals. 

The  latter  have  only  physicjil  wants  which  they  sjttisfy  as 
completely  as  possible.  But,  this  end  once  attained,  they  go 
no  further.  The  animal,  when  left  to  itself, doi's  not  know,  or 
has  scarcely  a  suspicion,  of  the  superfluous.  His  wants  are, 
therefore,  always  the  same. 

Man,  on  the  contrary;  whether  the  miml  or  the  ImkIv  is  in 
question,  is  always  seeking  the  supirfluuus,  uften  at  the  ex- 
pense of  utility,  .sometinies  to  the  iletrinun*  "f"  •'"•  necessary. 


458  The  I  I  KIN  an  Species. 

The  result  is  that  his  wants  increase  from  day  to  day.  The 
hixiiry  of  the  evening  becomes  the  indispensable  of  the 
infirrow. 

This  fact  is  just  ;us  true  witli  regard  to  the  savages  as  to 
civiUzed  peoples.  We  must,  then,  consider  it  as  one  of  those 
characters  wliich  belong  to  the  very  nature  of  beings.  -  Re- 
garded systematically  from  this  point  of  view,  man  might 
be  defined  as  an  animal  requiring  the  superfiuoiis,  with 
just  as  much  reason  as  he  has  been  called  a  reasoning 
animal. 

Moralists  have  at  all  times  severely  blamed  this  tendency 
and  condemned  those  insatiable  appetites  which  are  always 
a.skinf'  for  more  and  for  what  they  do  not  possess.  I  cannot 
share  this  view.  Far  from  blaming  in  principle  that  which 
essentially  is  but  the  desire  for  the  better,  I  cannot  but  see  in 
it  one  of  the  noblest  attributes  of  man.  Tliis  faculty  is,  in 
reality,  one  of  the  most  important  cau.ses  of  his  greatness. 
When  nu'U  are  once  fully  satisfied  and  have  no  more  wants, 
they  will  come  to  a  standstill,  and  j'^'ogrcss,  that  great  and 
sacred  law  of  mankind,  will  come  to  a  standstill  also. 

In  reality,  it  is  the  want  of  the  superfluous  which  has  de- 
V.  loped  all  our  industries,  which  luus  engendered  the  arts  and 
sciences  without  which  many  races  and  nations,  and,  even 
among  ourselves,  whole  populations  exist  perfectly  well.  We 
must  therefore,  with  every  reservation  as  to  wrong  applica- 
tions, accept  it  in  the  first  place  as  a  fact,  in  the  second  as  a 
])enf'fit. 


CHAPTER    XXXIV. 


MORAL  CHARACTERS. 


1.  In  spite  of  all  tliat  is  exceptional  and  cK'vated  in  the  in- 
tellectual phenomena  displayed  by  man,  they  do  not,  when 
considered  as  characters,  isolate  ns  from  animals.  It  is  diffe- 
rent with  moral  and  relij^ous  phenomena.  The  latter,  as  we 
have  seen,  belong  essentially  to  the  human  kingdom  ;  they 
are  the  attributes  of  our  species.  Let  us  examine  them 
rapidly,  and,  at  the  same  time,  invariably  from  this  point  of 
view. 

Confining  our.selves  rigorously  to  the  region  of  facts,  and 
carefully  avoiding  the  territory  of  philosophy  and  theology, 
we  may  state,  without  hesitation,  that  there  is  no  human 
society  or  even  association  in  which  the  idea  o(  goal  and  evii 
is  not  represented  l)y  certain  acts  regarded  by  the  members  of 
that  society  or  association  as  morally  _7oo<Z  or  momlly  5a^/. 
Even  among  robbers  ami  pirates  theft  is  regarded  a,s  a  mis- 
deed, sometimes  as  a  crime,  and  severely  punished,  while 
treachery  is  branded  with  infamy  ;  the  facts  noticed  by 
Wallace  among  the  Kurubars  and  Santals  shew  how  the 
consciousness  of  moral  good  and  truth  is  antt-rior  to  e.rjM'i^ 
litre,  and  independent  of  questions  o(  utilitt/. 

Nevertheless,  Sir  John  Lubbock,  in  a  work  with  which  all 
my  readers  are  doubtless  acquainted,  states  that  the  moral 
sense  is  wanting  in  the  savage.  In  support  of  this  opinion 
he  quotes  some  vague  and  general  assertions  l>caring  more 
particularly  upon  the  A\istralians,  Tahitian.s  Re<l-Skins,  etc. 
The  as.sertious  of  the  eminent  uatuiili-t  Imvi-  bo.  n  so  oft*  u 


460  The  Ihiman  Species. 

repeated  that  it  will  only  be  necessary  for  ino  to  exatniiio 
them  in  a  few  words. 

In  tlie  first  place,  I  w\vj^\i  produce  numerous  quotations 
of  the  same  nature  in  opposition  to  these  assertions.  I  shall 
only  recall  the  words  of  Wallace,  speaking  of  the  tribes  in 
the  midst  of  which  he  had  lived.  "Every  individual,"  he 
says,  "  .scrupulou.sly  respects  the  rights  of  his  neighbour,  and 
these  rights  are  but  rarely  infringed."  Is  it  possible  to  admit 
that  this  respect  does  not  rest  upon  something  analogous  to 
that  which  we  call  morality.  I  shall,  moreover,  presently  shew 
that  this  is  really  the  case. 

Again,  Lubbock  seems  to  have  contradicted  himself  when 
pointing  out  in  his  book  tlie  small  amount  of  real  liberty  en- 
joyed by  savages.  He  represents  them,  correctly,  as  being 
the  slaves  of  a  nudtitudo  of  customs,  having  the  importance 
of  laws,  which  rule  all  their  actions.  Now,  amongst  these 
customs,  there  areagreat  iniinbcr  which  are  at  variance  with 
tlio  most  natural  passions,  such  as  the  instinct  of  reproduc- 
tion, the  choice  of  nourishment,  etc.  An  infringement  of  these 
laws  is  followed  by  a  punishment  often  terrible.  Is  it  not  evi- 
dent that  the  greater  number  of  them  can  oidy  be  based  upon 
the  more  or  less  distinct  idea  of  good  and  evil  ? 

But  the  idea  in  question  resembles  mathematical  formula. 
The  result  of  the  solution  of  a  general  equation  varies  with 
the  data;  and  according  to  the  latter  may  .sometimes  be  re- 
presented by  the  sign  7)?as,  sometimes  l)y  the  sign  minus. 
So  morality  varies  in  its  manifestations  by  virtue  of  innumer- 
able circumstances  which,  again,  originate  in  numerous  causes. 
The  Kame  acts  arc  often  regarded  as  good,  bad,  or  iudiflerent, 
according  to  the  special  organisation,  the  religion,  or  the  tra- 
ditions of  tin;  society  in  which  tiny  have  occurred. 

These  acts  do  not,  on  this  account",  ceiu^e  to  belong  to  a 
faridty  eH.sentiaIly  hinnan  ;  and,  whelhor  of  themselves,  or 
fri^m  the  iilea  with  wlii«  h  they  are  connected  in  the  ditferent 
human  groups,  they  fiirnish  the  n at u  valid\\\\.\\  charade v a -.yn 
true  as  those  belong^ing  to  the  intelligence. 

This  is  still  more  cerUiinly  the  case  when  institutions  are 


Moral  Characters— Whites  and  Negroes.    461 

prudiiccil  l»y  this  order  of  facts  and  ideas.  These  sometimes 
present  such  a  characteristic  appearance,  tliat  at  the  first 
glance  they  seem  to  isohite  a  people  or  a  race,  ami  rcHection 
is  necessary  to  discover  the  true  relations  which  unite  the 
gi-oup  by  which  this  peculiarity  is  presented  to  other  popula- 
tions and  races.  The  tahoii  of  the  Polynesians  was  Ion;;  con- 
sidered by  many  writers  a-s  something  absolutely  special,  whilst 
in  reality  we  meet  with  the  civil  taboa  in  every  European 
nation,  and  the  Mosaic  law  throughout  is  a  tabou  code  based 
upon  religion. 

To  arrive  at  the  truth  in  this  study  we  must  approach  it 
with  perfect  impartiality,  witli  all  the  mental  freedom  which 
a  zoologist  brings  to  the  e.xainination  of  the  phvsical  characters 
of  a  mammal  or  bird.  We  must  avoid  judging  foreign  peoples 
whether  civilized,  barbarou.s,  or  .savage,  by  our  own  fixed  ideas. 
If  we  act  ditferently,  we  only  render  oui-sclves  liable  to  error 
and  injustice.  A  momentary  return  to  our  own  case,  to  the 
history  of  our  race  and  our  most  advanced  population.s,  is 
often  useful  in  making  us  appreciate  justly  the  moral 
characters  of  tribes  and  peoples  which  we  are  far  too  fond  of 
representing  to  oui-selves  as  occupying  a  position  far  below 
our  own. 

II.  By  using  this  precaution,  and  adhering  to  general  facts, 
we  can  scarcely  help  being  struck  by  the  intimate  resem- 
blance which  moral  manifestations  establish  between  all  men, 
both  in  good  and  in  evil  ;  and,  melancholy  though  the  con- 
clusion is,  especially  perhaps  in  the  latter  respect.  For 
e.xample,  the  infamous  debauches  of  the  Polynesian  nrcois, 
the  hideous  vices  of  some  American  populations,  have  often 
been  insisted  u|x>n.  But  let  us  not  forget  the  orgies  of 
Ci recce  and  Home,  certain  haunts  in  our  own  great  cities, 
and  the  terrible  revelations  which  from  time  to  time  are 
made  in  the  jwlice  courts  of  our  proudest  capitals. 

Fundamentally,  the  White,  even  when  civdi/.ed,  from  the 
moral  point  of  view  is  scarcely  better  than  the  Negro,  and 
(00  often,  by  his  conduct  in  the  miilst  of  inferior  races,  has 
j>istified   the  argument   opposed   by   a   Malgache   to  a  mis- 


462  TJic  Human  Species. 

sionary,  "  Your  soklicrs  seduce  all  our  women  .  .  .  you  come 
to  rob  us  of  our  land,  pillage  the  country,  and  make  war 
af^ainst  us,  and  you  wish  to  force  your  God  upon  us,  saying 
that  He  forbids  robbery,  pillage,  and  war!  Go,  you  are  white 
upon  one  side  and  black  upon  the  other ;  and  if  we  were  to 
cross  the  river,  it  would  not  be  us  that  the  caimans  would 
take," 

Such  is  the  criticism  of  a  savage ;  the  following  is  that  of 
an  European,  of  M.  Rose,  giving  his  opinion  of  his  own 
countrymen  :  "The  people  are  simple  and  confiding  when  we 
arrive,  perfidious  when  Ave  leave  them.  Once  sober,  brave 
and  honest,  we  make  them  drunken,  lazy,  and  finally  thieves. 
After  having  innoculatcd  them  with  our  vices,  we  employ 
these  very  vices  as  an  argument  for  their  destriiction." 

Ifowever  severe  these  conclusions  may  appear,  they  are 
unfortunately  true,  and  the  history  of  the  relations  of  Euro- 
peans with  the  populations  which  they  have  encountered  in 
America,  at  the  Cape,  and  in  Oceania,  justify  them  only  too 
fully.  As  for  Africa,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  two  words, 
trade  and  slavery,  are  quite  sufficient  to  prevent  a  European 
froni  boasting  too  loudly  of  the  morality  of  his  race. 

It  may,  however,  be  objected  that  these  crimes  were  per- 
petrated long  ago,  and  will  never  be  repeated,  that  slavery 
lias  been  abolished  in  our  colonies  never  to  re-appcar.  The 
answer  is  but  too  simple,  and  will,  I  am  sure,  be  confirmed 
by  the  reminiscences  of  more  than  one  of  my  readers.  In 
every  ca.se  this  allegation  otdy  applies  to  the  ylr/y^ni  White, 
'i'lie  S<:mlt'ic  Whites  have  jjreserved  slavery,  and  the  accounts 
of  all  travellers,  especially  those  of  H.irth,  Livingstone,  Nach- 
tigall,  and  Schweinfurth,  show  us  but  too  clearly  that  it  is 
still  the  trade  of  Central  Africa.  Hut  is  the  Aryan  White 
himself  free  from  all  blame  upon  this  point  ?  As  an  answer 
to  this  rpicstion,  I  shall  confine  my.self  to  mentioning  some 
facts,  which  liajipencd,  ho  to  speak,  oidy  the  other  day. 
However  melancholy  the  narration  may  be,  it  will  at  least 
serve  the  [nirposo  of  proving  that  the  savage  chiinciit  still 
exists  in  the  most  civilized  nations.     I  have  borrowed  them 


Moral  Characters — Coolie   Trade.  463 

fruiii  A.  II.  Marklwiin,  coininamlcr  of  the  lloaario,  >Nliich  was 
sent  out  by  the  English  government  to  cruise  antong  the 
archipelagoes  of  Santa  Cruz  and  the  New  Hebrides,  for  the 
purpose  of  putting  a  stop  to  the  practices  in  question.  The 
truth  and  accuracy  of  this  testimony,  which  was  given  in 
1873,  are  therefore  unfortunately  indisputable. 

Forty  years  ago  the  sandal-wood  trade  reached  a  develuj)- 
ment  which  is  accounted  for  by  the  high  value  attached  to 
this  wood  by  the  Chinese.  Speculators  fitted  out  ships,  and 
cut  down  the  forests  of  the  Melanesian  Islands.  The  natives 
naturally  resi.^ted  this  devastation  :  they  were  answered  by 
the  rifle.  In  1842  the  crews  of  two  English  vessels  landed 
at  Sandwich  Island,  one  of  the  most  lu.\uriant  in  the  archi- 
pelago of  the  New  Hebrides.  The  islanders  when  resisting 
the  destruction  of  their  woods,  were  set  upon  by  the  Whites, 
who  killed  twcnty-si.x,  and,  driving  a  gieat  number  into  a 
cave,  sutibcated  them  with  smoke  till  not  one  remained. 

The  atrocities  committed  by  the  sandal-wood  robbers  have 
been  surpassed  by  those  of  the  pirates,  who  devoted  them- 
selves to  the  labour  trapw,  or  labour  trade,  which  arose  and 
increased  with  the  cotton  planUitions  which  the  Civil  War  in 
the  United  States  multiplied  in  the  English  colonics,  not 
only  in  Australia,  but  even  in  the  Fiji  Islands,  and  as  far  as 
sr)mc  of  the  New  HtV)rides. 

The  want  of  hands  being  felt,  the  idea  struck  Captain 
Towns  of  having  recoui-sc  to  the  indigenous  Blacks  of  the 
South  Sea,  oftcring  them  the  inducement  of  wages.  Success 
crowned  the  enterprise,  and  the  C;iptain  .'<oon  had  imitatt»rs. 
The  original  plan  was  to  engage  the  islanders  for  a  fixed  time, 
with  the  understan<ling  that  they  .sh<»uM  then  Ik>  8<,*nt  home. 
But  the  considerable  gains  thus  obtained  excited  cupidity, 
and  alave-ilcalers  began  to  carry  oft'  Papuans  in  onler  to 
transpirt  them  to  plantations  where  vi-ritable  slavery  awaited 
them.  This  trade  became  so  extensive  that  it  acquired  a 
name  which  was  also  bestowed  upon  child-titealintj.  It  is 
called  kidnapping,  an  expression  which  been  authori.scd  by 
otficial  documents 


464  The  Human  Species. 

All  means  were  legitimate  to  the  kidnaj^jyeys  in  order  to 
procure  their  liumau  cargo  "without  cost.  I  might  liere 
borrow  many  liorriblc  details  from  Markham,  but  I  will  only 
quote  one.  A  brig  had  just  anchored  at  some  little  distance 
from  the  coast  of  Florida,  one  of  the  Salomon  Islands.  A 
canoe  filled  with  natives  coming  close  alongside  was  up.set  by 
a  manceuvre,  apparently  accidental.  The  boats  were  imme- 
diately lowered  as  if  to  render  assistance  to  the  shipwrecked 
natives.  But  the  spectators  on  the  rocks,  or  in  other  canoes 
saw  European  sailors  seize  the  wretched  men,  and  with  a  long 
knife  cut  off  their  heads  on  the  gunwale  of  the  boat.  This 
done,  the  sailors  returned  to  the  brig  which  inimediately 
set  sail.  The  heads  thus  obtained  were  destined  to  pay  for 
the  engagement  of  a  certain  number  of  labourers.  In  many 
of  those  Melanesiau  Islands  the  victorious  warrior  decapi- 
tates and  carries  off  the  head  of  his  vanquished  enemy,  and 
the  re.spcct  whicli  he  gains  increases  with  the  number  of 
these  trophies  in  his  jwsse.ssion.  Now  it  had  bei-n  agreed 
"iKitween  certain  chiefs  and  captains  of  ves.sels,  that  the  latter 
should  procure  lieads,  and,  in  exchange,  receive  a  certain 
number  ^A'  living  individuals,  engaged  for  one  or  two  years. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  at  the  expiration  of  their 
engagement  the  unfortunate  Papuans  did  not  regain  their 
liberty.  In  1M07,  for  examj)le,  tltere  is  proof  that,  of  382 
islanders  who  ought  to  have  been  sent  home,  only  7S  had 
Ijeen  allowed  to  go. 

It  will  easily  Ix;  understood  that  llivse  ships,  laden  with 
unfortunate  creatures,  carried  olV  l>y  force  or  by  stratagem, 
were  necessarily  the  theatre  of  terrible  scenes.  Here  again 
the  commandi-r  of  the  Iii)fiiirii)  <|uot<'s  many  fact.s.  I  shall 
only  lK>rrow  tii(>  account  of  what  haj)pened  on  board  tho 
C'«n7,  for  the  liistory  of  this  slave-ship  seems  to  me  to  pre- 
sent a  summary  of  all  the  atrocities  of  I:iilnnpptvff. 

The  Ctirl  (piitted  Milhounir  in  isTl.with  the  avowed 
intention  of  engaging  b!ack  laboiirrrs.  With  her,  uiidir  the 
title  of  pa.s.'M?nger,  went  a  certain  Dr.  tiames  I'atriek  Murray, 
who  waa  interested  in  tho  enterprise,  and  who  seems  to  have 


A  [oral  Cliaractcrs — Cootie  Trade.  465 

]»layo(l  the  part  of  loader,  When  tlicy  arrived  at  the  New 
Hebrides,  the  kidnappers  seem  to  have  made  ineffectual 
efforts  to  obtain  labourers  by  legitimate  means.  They  soon 
had  recourse  to  others.  At  Pahner  Island  one  of  them 
dressed  himself  as  a  missionary,  hoping  thus  to  attract  the 
islanders  on  board,  who  fortunately  discovered  the  trap. 
From  this  moment  the  slave  dealers  had  recourse  to  violence 
alone.  Their  method  was  to  approach  the  canoes  manned 
by  Papuans,  and  to  destroy  or  capsize  them  by  throwing  into 
them  some  of  those  large  bars  of  iron  which  are  used  as 
ballast.     The  crews  were  then  ea.sily  cai)tured. 

Eighty  blacks  had  been  collected  in  this  manner.  During 
the  day  they  were  allowed  to  come  on  deck,  but  in  the 
evening  they  were  thrust  into  the  hoUl.  During  the  night 
of  the  12th  of  Septendjor,  the  prisoners  made  some  noise. 
They  were  silenced  by  firing  a  pistol  over  their  heads. 
During  the  following  night  the  noise  began  again,  and  the 
same  means  were  employed  to  stop  it.  But  the  blacks  had 
set  to  work  to  break  up  the  camjvbeds,  and  thus  armed  they 
attacked  the  hatchway.  The  whole  crew,  sailors  and  pxs- 
.st-ngers,  then  began  to  fire  into  the  crowd.  The  firing 
histed  eight  hours.  It  stopped  perhaps  fur  a  ftw  moments, 
but  began  again  at  the  least  noise. 

Day  broke,  and  all  seemed  <iuiit ;  the  hatchways  were 
opened  wide,  and  those  who  could  were  invited  lo  come  up 
There  were  jive  ;  all  the  rest  were  either  dead  or  wounded. 
I'he  corpses  were  hastily  thrown  into  tlie  sea,  and  at  the 
-;ime  time  six  lii'tntj  i)nUvidu(iLs  who  were  badly  wounded 

Could  we  find  among  savages  many  indutitni's  more 
infamous  than  kidnapping,  many  deeds  more  atrocious 
than  those  of  which  Dr.  Murray  and  his  accom])lice8  were 
-uilty  ? 

Let  us  hasten  to  do  ju.<^tice  to  the  local  legislature  and  the 
Mngli.'ih  Parliament,  which  promulgated  severe  laws  and  ndes 
for  the  prevention  and  punishment  of  the  crimes  of  kid- 
napping. Unfortunately,  the  colonists,  more  or  less  interested 
in  procuring   labourers  at   a   cheap   rate,  show  theraselvea 


466  The  Iluvian  Species. 

remarkably  indulgent  towards  those  whose  business  it  is  to 
provide  them  with  coolies.  Some  officers  of  the  English 
navy  have  learnt  this  to  their  cost.  Captain  Montgomery, 
commander  of  the  Blanche,  had  seized,  and  sent  to  Sydney, 
the  schooner  Challenge  as  a  slave  ship.  It  was  proved  that 
on  two  occasions  the  Challenge  had  imprisoned  blacks  in  her 
hold,  who  had  been  fraudulently  enticed  on  to  the  ship  ; 
that  two  of  them  had  been  taken,  under  circumstances  of 
violence,  to  the  Fijis ;  that  the  others  had  only  been  released, 
because  in  their  despair  they  had  set  to  work  to  make  a  leak 
in  the  side  of  the  vessel  with  a  hatchet ;  and,  finally,  that 
these  wretched  creatures  were  obliged  to  swim  back  to  their 
island,  from  which  the  Challenge  already  lay  at  a  distance  of 
about  GJ  miles.  In  spite  of  these  grave  facts,  the  Challenge 
was  acquitted.  On  the  other  hand.  Captain  Montgomery 
was  condemned  to  pay  £1)00  sterling  damages,  and  interest 
to  the  owners  of  the  ship. 

III.  If  it  is  only  too  easy  to  detect  amongst  ourselves  the 
evil  deeds  of  savages,  it  is,  happily,  ea-sy  to  point  out  among 
these  people,  whom  we  are  so  ready  to  accuse  and  despi.se, 
the  feelings  upon  which  our  own  .societies  are  founded,  the 
good  which,  as  a  whole,  predominates  in  them,  and  the 
virUu's  which  we  most  lionour.  My  readers  will,  however, 
understand  that  I  cannot  here  enter  info  details  incompatible 
with  the  nature  of  this  work.  We  must  eonfme  ourselves  to 
a  rapid  glance  at  the  opinions  held  by  men  in  general  upon 
j/i'opertg,  respect  of  hununi  life,  and  self-respect,  and  compare 
what  travellers  have  told  us  of  sonie  of  the  most  inferior 
races  with  what  we  know  of  our  own  and  of  ourselves. 

It  Las  often  been  said,  in  spr.iking  of  certain  races  and 
|MopleK,  that  they  have  no  idea  of  property.  Tho.sc  who 
look  a  little  closer  into  the  matter  will  see  that  this  is  an 
•  •nor.  Among  trilws  of  warriors,  hunters,  or  fishers,  however 
liiw  a  pr)siiion  they  may  hol<l  in  the  scale  of  humanity,  arms 
an<l  tools  are  looked  ujMm  a.s  jM^rsonal  pro)(eify,  and  the 
tcHtimony  of  travellerK,  who  have  taken  but  little  interest  in 
the  fjuestion,  is  very  explicit  uf)On   this  point.     In  the  Paris 


Moral  Characters — Property.  467 

Musemn  iIrtc  is  a  boomciaiit(  upmi  \vliich  some  sif^ns  are 
roughly  carvfd.  W.  Tlio/At,  the  (h)nor,  was  showing  it  on 
some  occasion  to  an  Australian  from  the  ni'ighhourhood, 
when  tlie  hit  tor  at  once  (list'ovcreil  from  the  signs  to  whom 
it  had  belonged.  But  there  is  ancjtiier  form  which  property 
assumes  among  savage  or  barbarous  popuKitions.  If  it  is  a 
question  of  hind,  it  will  often  be  found  to  be  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  clan,  tribe,  or  nation.  The  huntiuf/- 
grounda  of  the  Red-Skins  are  met  with  in  every  place 
wliere  civilization  has  stopped  at  tlie  level  which  they 
represented  at  the  epoch  of  their  discover}'.  This  species  of 
property  exists  in  New  Holland  among  peoples,  supposed  by 
some  to  be  degenerate  monkeya,  and  the  right  which  ndes 
it  is  so  rigorous  that  the  Australian  never  enters  the 
|>ro|)erty  of  a  neighbouring  tribe  without  express  permission. 
To  act  otherwise  is  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war. 
Dur  common  lands,  and  the  annual  conflicts  which  took 
place  formerly,  and  which,  perhaps,  still  take  place,  in  spite 
of  official  settlements,  between  French  and  Spanish  shep- 
herds, will  give  some  idea  of  such  a  state  of  things.  Among 
certain  Australian  tribes,  territorial  property  is  still  more 
divided  and  definite  ;  every  family  has  its  hunting-grounds, 
which  are  inherited  by  the  sons  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
daughters. 

Among  the  most  savage  peoples,  when  we  have  been  able 
to  gain  definite  information  as  to  their  manners,  we  find 
tliat  theft  is  regarded  as  something  wrong,  and  j>unishetl. 
Among  the  Australians,  poaching  is  punished  with  death. 

But  theft  is  only  a  crime  when  it  is  committed  under 
certain  circunistances.  When  untie r  others  it  is,  on  the 
contrary,  regarded  as  meritorious.  To  rob  an  enemy  of 
his  horses  or  cattle  is  a  praiseworthy  act  of  cunning.  It  is 
no  longer  theft,  but  an  a«-t  of  hostility.  Now.  to  the  savage 
the  stranger  is  almost  always  an  enemy.  The  case  is  the 
same  with  a  great  many  Aryan  and  Semitic  |HH>plea.  Wils 
it  not  so  among  the  classic  nations  from  which  we  derive  our 
civilization  ? 


468  The  Human  Species. 

Nothing  is  more  common  tlian  to  hoar  travellers  accuse 
entire  races  of  an  incorrij^nhle  propensity  for  theft.  The 
insular  populations  of  the  Simth  Sea  have,  amongst  others, 
Ijeen  reproached  with  it.  These  people,  it  is  indignantly 
affirmed,  stole  even  the  nails  of  the  ships  !  But  these  nails 
were  iron,  and  in  these  islands,  which  are  devoid  of  metal, 
a  little  iron  was,  with  good  cause,  regarded  as  a  treasure. 
Now,  I  ask  any  of  my  readers,  supposing  a  ship  with 
Kheaihing  and  holts  of  gold,  and  nails  of  diamonds  and 
ruhies,  were  to  sail  into  any  European  port,  would  its  sheath- 
ing or  its  nails  be  safe  ?  And  would  not  numbers  of  people 
be  found  ready  to  reason  like  the  Negroes,  who  make  no 
scruple  of  robbing  a  White  ?  "  You  are  so  rich,"  they  say, 
when  reproached  with  any  misdeed  of  this  kind. 

These  same  Negioes,  however,  have  a  great  respect  for 
property  among  themselves.  Theft  does  not  appear  to  be 
more  frequent  with  them  than  it  is  with  us  between  Europeans, 
and  the  thief  is  punished  upon  the  coast  of  (luinea  pncisely 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  Europe. 

We  oui,dit,  perhaps,  to  refer  to  the  idea  of  property  the 
manner  in  which  adultery  is  regarded  by  some  peoples.  In 
countries  where  the  woman  may  be  bought,  it  is  evidently  a 
violation  of  the  rights  of  the  ])ropnetor.  Nevertheless,  even 
amongst  the  most  savage  tribes,  a  more  elevated  feeling,  and 
one  which  is  connected  with  moral  or  social  ideas,  as  wc 
ourselves  understand  them,  may  be  proved,  often  in  the 
ch-arest  manner.  The  giavity  of  the  pimishment  inclined 
by  the  culprit  scarcely  permits  of  a  doubt  that  it  is  so.  The 
Atistralian,  iMicorrupted  by  the  vicinity  of  the  White  and 
brandy,  never  forgives  one  who  liius  destroyed  the  purity  of 
his  wife,  and  kills  him  on  the  first  occasion.  With  the 
Hottentots,  death  again  is  the  pimishment  for  adtdtery.  It 
is  the  custom  among  the  Negroes  of  the  CJold  Cojust  for  the 
cidprit,  as  a  general  rule,  to  make  an  arrangement  with  the 
injured  party,  if  it  is  a  (piestion  of  one  of  the  women  of  the 
third  order,  who  are  merely  concubines.  liut  if  it  is  a  ques- 
tion of  the  (jrcal  v/ife  or  the  Fdinh  wife,  then  death,  or  at 


Jlloral  Characters — Jlfodcsly,  Honour.       469 

least  the  ruin  of  tlio  cul))rit,  will  alone  sufTice  to  avenge  the 
injury. 

Yet  Negresses  are  not  Penelope.s.  I  do  not  fur  a  moment 
think  of  challenging  the  unanimous  evidence  of  travellers  on 
this  point,  and  the  husbands,  as  we  have  just  remarked,  do 
not  always  invoke  the  rigour  of  the  local  code.  What  may 
we  legitimately  infer  from  this  fact  ?  Merely  that  the 
customs  and  the  law  of  these  races  are  at  variance.  But  is 
it  not  often  so  amongst  ourselves.  Is  adultery  practised  with 
impunity  only  among  Negroes  ?  Do  complaisant  husbands 
exist  only  among  Australians  ? 

IV.  Respect  for  human  life  is  universal.  The  murderer  is 
everj'whcre  punishcil,  liut,  amongst  ourselves,  murder  sup- 
poses certain  conditions.  In  spite  of  the  law,  he  who  kills  hi.s 
adversary  in  a  fair  duel  is  regarded  by  no  one  a.s  a  murderer ; 
he  who  kills  or  causes  the  death  of  a  great  number  of  enemies 
in  pitched  battle  is  a  hero. 

With  the  savage  the  formula  is  still  more  elastic.  As  I 
have  just  remarked,  he  regards  a  stranger  in  almost  every 
ca.se  as  au  enemy,  and  to  kill  him  is  no  crime ;  it  is  often 
a  title  of  honour.  Moreover,  among  the  greater  number  of 
savage  or  barbarous  peoples,  blood  demands  l)lood,  and  for 
vengeance  to  be  complete,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  true 
culprit  should  be  overtaken.  Every  individual  of  the  same 
family,  tril»o,  or  nation,  can,  and  muMt  pay  for  his  crime  if 
occaiiion  otYers.  When  Takouri  treaclniviuslij  n)a.ssacred 
Captain  Marion  du  Fresne  and  his  si.\teeu  sailors,  ho  only 
obeyed  the  laws  of  his  country,  lie  had  avenged  his  relative 
Nagui  Noui,  triachcnnn<f>/  carried  off  three  years  previously 
by  Surville,  who  wished  to  puui.>>h  the  theft  of  a  canoe.  In 
this  manner  many  Europeans  have  fallen  victims  to  the 
misdeeds  of  their  countrymen,  and  certain  peoples  have 
actpiired  an  unmerited  reputation  for  ferocity. 

But  let  us  remember  that  the  Scotch  and  the  Corsicans 
scarcely  acted  differently  in  their  vendetta.  With  them,  a.s 
with  the  Red-Skin,  the  Maori,  and  the  Fijian,  the  bhKxl  of 
every  member  of   the   family  or  clan  might  atone  for  the 


I 


470  TJic  IIui)ia)i  Species. 

blood  spilt  by  another.  Again,  tbat  which  we  now  call 
vilful  munhi;  was  no  more  considered  b}-  the  European  as 
an  act  of  cowardice  or  treason  than  it  is  by  the  savage.  Let 
us  remember,  moreover,  that  in  the  Middle  Ages,  chiefs 
occupying  the  highest  positions  in  European  society,  did  not 
hesitate  to  act  in  this  manner ;  let  us  remember  that  the 
commanders  of  our  ships,  when  punishing  savages  for  some 
attack,  bombard  and  burn  the  first  villages  that  they  meet 
without  any  scruple,  nltliuugh  they  may  be  almost  sure  that 
many  innocent  will  pay  fur  the  guilty  ;  and  perhaps  we  shall 
be  less  severe. 

As  to  a  want  of  respect  for  human  life,  the  white  European 
race  cannot  reproach  the  most  barbarous.  Let  us  look  back 
upon  our  own  history,  and  recall  some  of  those  wars,  those 
j)agL's  written  in  letters  of  blood  in  our  own  annals.  Let  us 
not,  above  all,  forget  our  conduct  towards  our  inferior 
brethren  ;  the  depopulation  wliich  marks  every  step  through 
tjje  world  ;  the  niassacies  committeil  in  cold  blood,  and  often 
for  amusement ;  the  man-hunts  organized  after  the  manner 
of  stag-hunts  ;  the  extermination  of  entire  populations  to 
make  room  for  P^uropean  colonies,  and  we  shall  be  forced  to 
acknowledge  that  if  respect  for  human  life  is  a  moral  and 
universal  law,  no  race  lias  violated  it  oftener,  or  in  a  more 
terriiile  manner  than  our  own. 

V.  Modesty  and  sense  of  honour  are  undoubtedly  two  of 
the  principal  manifestations  of  self-respect.  Neither  the  one 
nor  the  other  are  wanting  among  savage  peoples.  Jiut  the 
former,  especially,  often  shows  itself  in  customs  and  practices 
widely  opposed  to  our  own,  or  bearing  no  resemblance  what- 
ever t(»  till  in.  'i'his  has  given  rise  to  many  misconceptions, 
such  OH  that  which,  among  certain  Polynesians,  has  been 
consider<'d  as  a  refinement  of  immodest  sensuality,  what  in 
their  opinion  is  only  an  act  of  <'lementary  modesty, 

I  might  multiply  examples  of  this  nature,  but  for  what 
pui-jKiKc  ?  Is  it  not  the  same  in  matters  of  politeness  ?  We 
rise  and  uncover  the  head  l)efore  a  stranger  or  a  superior ;  in 
a  similar  clso  the  Turk  remains  covered,  and  the  Polynesian 


Moral  Clui racier s — //o/ioitr.  471 

sits  down.  Tliouj^^li  (Jiffcriiit;  so  entirely  in  form,  are  they 
not  insj)ireil  l»y  tlie  same  sentiments?  Is  not  the  faculty  hy 
which  they  are  called  into  play  everywhere  the  same? 

It  is  the  same  also  with  the  sense  of  honour.  Here,  how- 
ever, more  than  in  any  other  case,  we  meet  with  conceptions 
remarkably  in  accordance  with  our  own.  The  history  of 
.ravage  natioiis  abounds  with  traits  of  warlike  heroi.sm,  and 
nothing  is  more  common  than  to  .see  savages  prefer  torture 
and  death  to  shame.  The  Algonquin  and  the  Iroquois 
thallenge  their  executioners  to  invent  fresh  tortures.  The 
Kaffir  chief  a.sks  as  a  favour  to  be  thrown  to  the  crocodiles 
rather  than  lo.se  the  feather,  which  to  him  represents  the 
epaulette,  and  serve  as  a  common  soldier  after  having  been 
an  officer.  The  duel  of  the  Australian  is  more  l(»gi(al  than 
ours,  and  always  in  earnest. 

That  which  we  call  chivalrous  generosity  in  speakin^  of 
Europeans,  is  by  no  means  wanting  in  savages.  lu  the 
struggles  at  Tahiti  several  officers  owed  their  lives  to  this 
feeling.  After  peace  had  l>een  concluded,  Admiral  Bruat 
asked  a  Tahitian  chief,  to  who.se  fire  he  had  l>een  expo.sed 
for  an  hour  while  he  bathed,  why  he  had  not  fired:  "I  should 
have  been  dishonoured  in  the  eyes  of  my  people  if  I  had 
killed  such  a  chief  as  you,  naked,  and  by  surprise,"  replied 
the  savage.  Could  the  most  civilized  man  have  actetl  or 
spoken  better  ? 

We  might  <pinto  varii>us  actions  of  Red-8kins  and 
Australians,  arising  from  sentiments  of  the  s;ime  nature. 

VI.  In  conclusion,  if  it  is  sa«l  to  Ik?  forceil  to  rec<»gnise 
mond  evil  in  races  and  in  nations  which  have  carried  social 
civilizjition  to  the  highest  degree  of  jn-rfection,  it  is  consolin<' 
to  acknowledge  the  tjnod  in  the  most  Imckward  tribe.s,  and 
to  find  it  there  in  its  most  elevated  and  refined  form.  The 
fundamental  identity  of  human  nature  is  nowhere  displaved 
in  a  more  striking  manner. 

Does  this  a.s.sertion  lead  to  the  inference  that  all  human 
-roups  are  upon  the  same  moral  level  ?  By  no  mean.s.  From 
this,  as  from  the  intellectual  point  of  view,  they  may  hold  a 

•n 


472  The  Human  Species. 

liii,^licr  or  lo^Yer  position  of  the  scale,  without  any  of  them 
falling  to  zero.  It  is  precisely  this  moral  inequality  which 
has  for  the  anthropologist  an  interest  at  once  scientific  and 
practical.  The  very  development  of  the  faculty,  the  acts 
which  it  inspires,  the  institutions  of  which  it  is  the  founda- 
tion, present  differences  sufficiently  great  to  make  it  possiljle 
to  discover  characters  in  this  order  of  facts. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 


RELIGIOUS   CHARACTERS. 


I.  If  scientific  impartiality  and  calm  judgment  are  neces- 
sary in  the  study  of  moral  phenomena,  they  are  much  more 
indispensable  when  we  have  to  account  for  facts  depending 
\i|)on  religious  feeling.  Unfortunately  tiiis  condition  is  too 
rarely  fulfilled.  Passion,  with  lamentable  facility,  becomes 
involved  in  whatever  resembles  a  religious  question.  Many 
other  causes,  easy  to  mention,  join  pjission  in  leading  our 
judgment  astray,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  explain  how,  under 
these  several  influences,  it  has  been  possible,  honestly  to 
ignore  manifestations  of  religion  in  the  more  or  less  important 
divisions  of  mankind. 

The  most  frequent  cause  of  error  to  which  I  feel  myself 
bound  to  call  attention,  has  its  origin  in  the  high  opinion 
whiclj  the  Euro]>ean  has  of  himself,  in  the  luibitual  contempt 
which  is  the  most  striking  feature  of  his  relation  with  other 
populations,  and  especially  to  those  which,  with  greater  or 
less  rea.son,  he  treats  as  barbarians  or  savages.  For  example, 
a  traveller  who,  as  a  general  rule,  speaks  the  language  of 
the  country  very  luidly,  intcrro^ites  a  few  individuals  upon 
the  delicate  questions  of  the  Diity,  future  life,  etc,  and  his 
interlocutoi-s,  not  luulerstanding  him,  make  a  few  signs  of 
iloubt  or  denial,  which  have  no  reference  to  the  (pieslions 
asked.  The  European  in  his  turn  mistakes  their  meaning. 
Having,  in  the  first  instance,  merely  regarded  them  jus  beings 
of  the  lowest  type,  incapable  of  any  conception  however 
trifling,  he  concludes  without  hesitation  that  these  iK-oplcs 
have   uo  idea  either  of  (Jod   or   of  another   life ;    and   his 


474  -^f^^  Human  Species. 

assertion,  soon  repeated,  is  at  once  accepted  as  true  by  readers 
wlio  sliarc  his  opinions  about  populations  unacquainted  with 
our  civilization.  The  history  of  travel  would  furnish  us  with 
many  examples  of  this  fact.  Kaffirs,  Hottentots,  etc.,  have 
often  been  spoken  of  as  atheists,  while  we  now  know  that 
this  is  l)y  no  means  the  ca.se. 

Should  the  traveller,  moreover,  speak  the  language  of  the 
country  with  ease,  he  is  still  liable  to  fall  into  error.  Reli- 
gious belief  forms  part  of  the  most  hidden  depths  of  our 
nature ;  the  savage  does  not  willingly  expose  his  heart  to  a 
stranger  whom  he  fears,  whose  superiority  he  feels,  and 
whom  he  has  often  .seen  ready  to  ignore  or  ridicule  what  he 
has  always  regarded  as  most  worthy  of  veneration.  The. 
dithculty  which  a  Parisian  experiences  in  France  in  under- 
standing the  superstitions  of  the  Basque  sailor,  or  of  the 
Bas-Breton  pea.sant,  shuuld  make  him  able  to  appreciate 
those  which  he  would  tiii<l  in  giving  an  explanation  of  similar 
subjects  in  connection  villi  Kaffirs  or  Australians.  Campbell 
had  great  trouble  in  (jbtaining  from  Alak()um  the  avowal 
that  the  Bosjesman  admitted  the  existence  of  a  male  god  and 
of  a  female  god,  of  a  good  and  evil  ])rinciple.  He  left  many 
other,  and  much  more  important  di.sccneries  to  be  made  by 
MM.  Arbousset  and  Daumas.  Wallis,  after  a  month's  inti- 
macy with  the  Tahitians,  declared  that  they  p.).sse.s.scd  no 
forui  of  woishijt,  whilst  it  entered,  .so  to  speak,  into  their  most 
trivial  action.s.  He  liad  seen  iiolliinL,^  beyond  a  cemetery  in 
I  ho  Moral,  those  venerated  temples,  of  wliicli  no  woman 
might  evi'ii  toiH  h  the  .sacred  gmund. 

Tin;  lively  faith  of  a  missionary  is,  again,  often  a  cause  of 
error.  Whatever  tlie  (Miristian  communion  may  be  to  which 
lie  belongs,  he  generally  arrives  in  the  midst  of  the  people 
\shom  ho  wi.shes  to  convert,  with  a  hatn-d  of  their  objects  of 
belief,  which  arc  to  him  works  of  the  devil.  Too  often  he 
neither  Hceks  to  account  for  them,  nor  even  to  become 
acquainted  with  them  ;  his  sole  endiavour  is  to  destif»y  them. 
1  could  here  mention  one  of  these  too  zealous  apostles,  who 
Hces  nothing  in  the  Brahminical  religion  but  the  utmost  bar- 


Rclij^ious  Characlcrs.  475 

Karism  uiiitcil  with  tlic  utmost  ahsiirdity.  It  is  clear  tliat 
the  much  more  rudiuicntary  holiof  of  a  Kaffir  or  of  an 
Australian  could  not  he  a  rclltjion  in  the  oj)ini()n  of  such 
a  judge  as  this.  He  expresses  and  puhlishes  his  ideas,  and 
another  name  is  a<lded  to  the  list  of  atheist  populations. 

Fortunately  amongst  lay  Europeans  there  are  some  who, 
permanently  settled  in  the  midst  of  these  populations, 
become  initiated  into  their  customs  and  manners,  .so  as  to 
understand  them  and  to  fathom  mysteries,  which  would  hy 
others  be  passed  over  on  account  of  offensive  or  curious  forms. 
Among  missionaries  there  are  some  who,  more  indulgent, 
because  they  are  more  enlightened,  can  recognise  the  reli- 
gious conception,  however  feeble  it  may  ])o,  or  however  it 
may  have  been  transformed.  Little  by  little  the  light  has 
appeared,  and  the  result  has  been  that  Austmlians,  Melane- 
sians,  Bosjesmans,  irottentnts,  Kaftirs,  and  Bechuniias,  have, 
in  their  turn,  been  withdrawn  fiom  the  V\>-t  of  atheist  nations 
and  recognised  as  religious. 

II.  Can  the  justice  of  this  conelusion  be  denied  ?  Can 
anyone  refuse  to  allow  a  religion,  properly  .so  calleti,  to  these 
peoples,  to  recognise  as  true  divinities  beings  who  receive  a 
tribute  of  affection  or  terror,  homage  and  prayers  on  the  part 
of  populations,  who  either  fear  <»r  trust  in  them  ?  It  is  po.s- 
sible.  Hero  again  our  European  pride  seems  to  me  to  have 
often  led  to  false  conclusions.  Believers  or  vmlK-lievers, 
freethinkers  or  zealous  Christians,  savants  and  phihisophcrs 
have  been  too  much  under  the  influence  of  the  idea  of  the 
Deity  as  conceived  by  our  most  cultivattxi  cla.s.sos.  Often 
when  this  idea  is  even  slightly  degrailed  or  modified,  they 
no  longer  acknowletlge  its  existence  ;  when  the  conclusions 
drawn  from  it  up)n  the  origin,  nature,  and  destiny  of  man  or 
of  the  universe,  differ  even  slightly  from  those  which  they 
admit  themselves,  or  have  been  aceuslomed  to  hear,  they 
refuse  them  the  name  of  nlitjiou. 

I  can  only  explain  in  this  manner  the  jmlgment  i>as.scd 
upon  a  very  considerable  |>ortion  of  mankind  by  a  numl>er 
of  savants  and   eminent   thinkers,  amongst   whom  we  must 


476  The  Hiniian  Species. 

reckon  the  illustiious  Orientalist  Burnouf.  In  liis  opinion 
Buildliisni  is  true  atheism.  In  a  work  ^Yhich  has  been 
deservedly  successful,  M.  Bartlieleniy  Saint-IIilairc  has  sup- 
ported this  view  with  incontestable  talent  and  learning.  He 
has,  moreover,  placed  on  an  equality  with  Buddhist  beliefs, 
and  perhaps  even  below  them,  those  which  had  preceded 
them  among  the  Mongols,  Chinese,  and  Japanese.  Thus,  in 
the  opinion  of  this  eminent  writer,  nearly  all  the  yellow 
races,  much  more  than  the  third  of  mankind,  arc  atheists. 

But,  in  formulating  this  conclusion,  the  learned  author 
of  Buddah  chiefly  consulted  his  own  reason  and  concep- 
tions. "Buddhists,"  he  says,  "may  without  any  injustice 
be  regarded  as  atheists.  I  do  not  mean  that  they  profess 
atheism,  that  they  glory  in  their  incredulity  with  that 
boasting  of  which  more  than  one  example  might  be  quoted 
amongst  ourselves  ;  I  only  mean  that  tlie.se  nations  have 
not  been  able  to  rise  in  their  noblest  thoughts  to  the  concep- 
tion of  God." 

In  the.se  few  lines  the  idea  of  the  book  and  the  CJiuse  of 
the  disagreement  which  separates  me  from  M.  Barthclemy 
Saint-llilaire  is  clearly  evident.  The  Buddhist.s,  who  every- 
where give  a  place  to  (jods  in  their  legends,  who  have  every- 
where rai.sed  temples  consecrated  to  these  deities,  who  fear 
and  worship  them,  who  have  made  prayer  an  institution, 
who  adjuit  the  dogma  of  future  life  and  of  remuneration, 
have  not  formed  that  idea  of  God  to  which  we  have  all  moro 
or  less  attained  ;  they  are  therefore  athei.sts.  This  is 
evidently  the;  prepo.s.sessiou  under  the  inlluence  of  which 
this  work  has  been  written,  which,  however,  should  be  read 
by  all  who  are  desirous  of  gaining  correct  impressions 
concerning  some  of  the  grave  (pieslions  so  holly  disputed  at 
the  in-esent  day. 

The  savant  who  considerrd  Uiiddhism  Jis  atheism  woidd 
with  still  greater  reason  inakr  the  same  estimate  of  the 
ancient  Udiefs  of  Japan,  ( 'liina.  and  Mongolia.  Neverthe- 
IcMH,  there  wa.s  in  this  ca.sc5  also  a  belief  in  numerous  divinities, 
always  subordinated  to  one  su^jreme,  uncreated  and  creating 


Rcii^ious  Characters.  477 

Cod.  In  Japan,  we  are  told  by  Siebolt,  there  were  counted 
no  less  than  seven  celestial  gods,  and  eight  million  kaniis,  or 
spirits,  of  which  4'J2  were  superior  gods.  Tho  inferior 
Kamis,  to  the  number  of  2t!4(),  were  deified  men.  Jn  China, 
the  aim  of  the  reform  of  Lao-tstu  and  of  Klujung-tsfU  was, 
partly,  the  destruction  of  idolatry,  and  idolatry  is  not 
atheism.  The  populations  of  northern  and  central  Asia 
have  in  almost  all  cases  been  accused  by  travellers  especially 
of  superstition,  and  not  of  atheism.  They  also  have  tlxir 
idols.  The  case  is  similar  with  all  northern  populations. 
Jn  the  sacred  island  of  Waygatz,  near  to  the  straits  of  the 
same  name,  the  missionaries  burnt,  in  1827,  420  images 
collected  upon  the  promontory  of  Haye-Salye  aloJie.  Through- 
out this  vast  area,  the  iidiabitants  believed,  or  still  believe, 
in  spirits  dwelling  in  rocks,  trees,  mountains,  or  the  celestial 
bodies,  and  otVered  to  them  an  interested  homage. 

Still,  however,  there  was  an  universjil  belief  iu  a  iSuprcme 
God,  who  had  created  these  very  spirits,  and  was  the 
Preserver  of  all  living  things.  The  Lapps  and  Samoyedes 
had,  or  still  have  on  this  point,  the  same  conceptions  as  the 
ancient  Chinese.  I'heir  Jubviel,  and  their  Num  answer 
e.xactly  to  the  Cltuvfj-tl  of  Khoung-tseu  himself,  while 
|»opvdar  iilioms  show  that  they  regard  him  as  the  first  dis- 
|>enser  of  all  good.  Nuvi  tad  (may  Num  grant),  and  Num 
iirka  {thanks  be  to  Num),  are  apparently  of  frequent  occtir- 
rence  in  the  language  of  the  Samoyedes.  This  Ixdief  in  a 
Supreme  (Jotl  and  in  secondary  spirits,  of  vast  number,  but 
still  presenting  a  kind  of  hierarchy,  is  a  very  ancient  one  in 
(  hina,  for  we  find  the  emperor  Chun  222.')  yt-ars  In^fore  our  era 
'•ottering  sacrifices  to  the  Supreme  Sovereign  of  Heaven,  antl 
the  usual  ceremonies  to  the  si.K  great  spirits,  as  those  tisually 
otVered  to  mountains,  stream.s,  and  spirit,s  in  general." 

Possessing  Wliefs  of  this  kind,  attested  and  sanctiomtl 
by  public  act.s,  can  they  l)e  regarded  as  atheist,s  ?  If  so, 
we  must  at  least  allow  that  this  is  a  very  tliffi  rent  atheism 
from  that  which  has  been  profe.s.MHl,  and  is  still  professed,  by 
certain  European  .schools  of  philosophy. 


478  The  IliDUiiJi  Species. 

II r.  I  nili^lit  make  similar  observations  iipDii  tlic  subject 
of  tlic  opinions  published  by  Sir  John  Lubbock  in  the  two 
works  which  have  gained  for  Inm  in  anthropology  a  reputa- 
tion e(iual  to  that  which  lie  already  enjoyed  as  a  naturalist. 
"  It  is  difficult,"  he  says,  "  to  suppose  that  savages  so  rude  as 
not  to  be  able  to  count  tlieir  own  fingers,  sliould  liave 
acquired  intellectual  conceptions  sufficiently  advanced  to 
possess  a  system  of  belief  worthy  of  the  name  of  religion." 

Leaving  on  one  side  what  the  author  here  says  tabout 
numeration,  which  rests,  I  think,  upon  a  false  assumption,  do 
not  these  words,  "worthy  of  the  name  of  religion,"  show  us 
that,  like  M.  B.  Saint-Hilaire,  Sir  John  Lubbock  takes  his 
own  conceptions  in  religious  matters  as  a  criterion  of  those 
of  savajres  ? 

\\\  the  opinion  of  Sir  John  Lubbock,  atheism  is  not  "the 
negation  of  the  existence  of  a  (Jod,  but  the  absence  of  definite 
idt'ji-s  upon  this  subject."  Here,  like  M.  liarthelemy  Saint- 
Hilaire,  the  English  savant  gives  to  the  word  dtheism  a  very 
different  sense  to  that  wliich  it  has  held  hitherto.  Moreover, 
he  quotes  elsewhere  without  comment  seviral  jiassages,  the 
sense  of  which  clearly  implies  a  negation  of  all  divinity,  and 
sometimes  himself  makes  use  of  expressions  which  seem  to 
[)rove  that  such  is  his  conviction,  at  least  with  regard  to 
certain  savages.  Thus,  the  testiniony  which  Ik;  makes  use 
of,  and  his  own  wonls,  are  often  employed  in  the  support 
of  the  opinion  wliiili  ditiirs  any  religion  to  eertain  liimian 
groups. 

The  choice,  iMorf()vcr,  of  the  (|Uol;if ions  in  question  .seems 
to  inr  liable  to  u  serious  <»bjection.  Wh'ii  the,  writers, 
against  whom  I  am  now  arguing,  havi;  to  choose  between 
two  uvitlenccH,  the  one  attesting,  the  other  denying  the  exis- 
tence of  n-ligiouH  belief  in  a  population,  it  is  always  the 
latt«T  whieh  they  seem  to  think  slioidd  l»e  aeeeptrd.  Mon: 
often  than  not,  thoy  do  not  evi'U  iiniilinii  the  (onfrary 
evidences,  however  de-finite,  however  authentic  tliey  may  be. 

Now  it  is  evidently  much  ednirv  iiol  to  mr  th.in  to  ilim-over 
that  which   may  be  in  so  many  ways  rendered  inap|ircciablo 


/\i/i<lio!is  C/iaracLrs — ditheism.  479 

to  onr  eyes.  When  a  traveller  sUites  that  he  li.is  proveil  the 
existence  of  religious  sentiments  in  a  |x>j)ul!ition,  which  hy 
others  had  been  declared  to  be  destitute  of  tlicni,  when  he 
gives  precise  details  upon  such  a  delicate  questi<jn,  he  hn.s 
unquestionably  at  least  probability  in  ins  favour.  I  see 
nothing  to  authorize  this  rejection  of  jiositive  ecUlence  and 
unconditional  acceptance  of  nejatlve  evidence.  This,  how- 
ever, is  too  often  the  case. 

I  might  justify  this  impuUition  by  taking,  one  by  i»ne, 
almost  all  the  examples  of  so-called  atheist  populatinns 
pointed  out  l)y  dilferent  authors.  I  shall  nmlini-  niv-^  If  (.» 
some  of  the  most  striking. 

With  reference  to  the  Americans,  lloln-rtsun  is  (|Uuti.il,  who 
states  that  several  tribes  have  been  disci>vered  in  America 
possessing  no  conception  of  a  Sujiremc  IJeing  and  no  re- 
ligious ceremonies.  No  mention  is  made  of  the  information, 
for  which  we  are  indel)ted  to  iJ'Orbiguy,  although  it  is  verv 
precise.  The  author  of  I' Homme  Avi/ricain  deserves  thi- 
neglect  the  less,  since  he  directly  contradicts  the  opinions 
lield  upon  this  subject  l)y  several  writers,  and  by  Robertson 
himself.  "  Although  several  authors,"  he  says,"  have  denied 
all  religion  to  certaiii  Americ^ms,  it  is  evident  in  our  opinion 
that  all  the  nations,  even  the  most  barb.-irous,  pos.Kes.sed  one 
of  .some  kind."  D'Orbiguy  d»'Velops  this  opinion  by  giving 
details  of  the  dognjas  accepti'd  by  all  the  r;ices  of  S«»uth 
America,  and  he  proves  in  all  the  belief  in  anothrr  life,  as 
attest«'d  by  (heir  funend  ceremonies.  Is  not  this  of  more 
in>|Kirtance  than  tli'-  ^inipl'-  n.'^r-.tivi-  ,i<^i.i  iI.,m  I...ii..u.  .| 
from  a  traveller  '. 

It  may  be  olij.tU.l  lluit  I )'( )»bi;;iiy  .s|Mtk<'  only  t»f  tlie 
tribes  of  Smth  America,  and  that  the  atheist  jH)pulations 
must  be  .sought  in  the  northern  portion  of  this  continent. 
The  C^iliforniaus  have,  in  fact,  ln^en  quoted,  iij>on  the  autho- 
rity of  P.  Baegert,  a.s  having  n«ither  governnunt,  religion, 
idols,  temples,  nor  form  of  worship.  I>ut  nothing  is  said  of 
the  facts  oUserved  by  M.  <Ie  M«)fra.s,  which  iiin-ctly  contradict 
this   as.sertion.      The    Californian.s,    this    traveller    tells   us. 


4S0  TJic  Ilinuan  S/^ixics. 

believe  in  a  superior  God.  "  This  God  lia.s  had  neither 
father  nor  mother.  His  origin  is  entirely  unknown ;  they 
believe  that  He  is  omnipresent  ;  that  He  sees  everything, 
even  in  the  middle  of  the  darkest  nights  ;  that  He  is  in- 
visible to  all  eyes  ;  that  He  is  the  Friend  of  the  good,  and 
that  He  punishes  the  wicked."  The  Californians  build  oval 
temples,  or,  perhaps,  rather  cluqiels,  from  10  to  12  ft.  in 
diameter,  -which  are  regarded  as  asylums,  even  in  case  of 
murder.  Clearly,  the  Californians  must  be  erased  from  the 
list  of  atheist  populations,  the  conception  Avhich  they  have 
formed  of  their  superior  God  being,  on  the  contrary,  a 
remarkably  elevated  one.  In  this  respect  these  poor  .savages 
greatly  sur{)assed  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

The  Californians  rank  amongst  those  human  tribes  which 
are  least  elevated  in  the  social  scale  ;  but  there  are  some 
which  arc  considered  to  stand  far  below  them,  the  Miucopies, 
for  example.  Some  writers,  adopting  the  ideas  o(  Moiiat, 
regard  them  as  atheist.s.  They  make  no  mention  of  the 
evidence  of  Alajor  Michael  Symes  and  Mr.  Day.  The 
former  relates  the  information  which  he  received  from 
Captain  Stocker,  who  lived  for  several  years  in  the  midst 
of  these  islanders  ;  the  latter  relates  what  he  saw.  From 
tlieir  combined  evidence,  it  appears  that  the  Mincopies 
wortihipped  the  sun  as  the  primal  source  of  all  good  ;  the 
moon  as  a  secondary  power ;  the  genii  of  the  woods, 
rivers,  and  mountains  as  agents  of  the  tir.st  divinities.  They 
believe  that  a  malevolent  spirit  rai.ses  tempc.st.s,  and  they 
Kometimes  endeavour  to  j)acify  it  by  songs,  sometimes 
menace  it  with  their  arrow.s.  These  Mincopifs  be'lieve  in 
an(»th(r  life,  and  keep  a  lighted  fire  under  the  jtlatform 
which  bears  the  corp.so  of  u  chief  to  appea.so  his  j)Oivcrful 
eplrit. 

The  evidence  of  Le  Vaillaut  is  accepted  with  reference  to 
the  ub.sencc  of  all  religion  in  the  Hottentots.  No  notice  is 
taken  of  the  contrary  opinion  held  by  Kolbcn,  the  accuracy 
and  truth  of  which,  though  formerly  doubted,  are  now  placed 
above   suspicion    by  the  inquiry  instituted    by   Walkenaer. 


Rciioious  Characters — .UJicisni.  48 1 

Kull>on,  moreover,  only  confirmed  the  statements  of  IiIm 
jnedocessors  Saar,  Tacliard,  and  Boeving.  He  had  also  the 
advantage  of  having  studied  the  aborigines  before  they  were 
subdued  and  dispersed  by  the  Europeans.  Now  KoIIhmi 
tells  us  that  the  Hottentots  believed  in  a  God,  the  creati^r  of 
all  existing  things,  doing  no  harm  to  anyone,  and  living 
be^'ond  the  moon.  They  called  Him  Gounja  Tlrqvim,  that 
is  to  say,  God  of  Gods.  They  also  recognized  an  evil  divinity, 
called  Touquda.  The  moon  was,  in  their  oj)inion,  an  inferior 
gounja.  They  believed,  moreover,  in  another  life,  for  they  were 
afraid  of  ghosts,  and  rendered  a  sort  of  adoration  to  their 
great  men,  by  dedicating  to  them  a  field,  a  mountain,  or  a 
river,  to  which  they  made,  in  pa.ssing,  some  sign  <»f  re.sjK'ct. 
These  details,  given  by  the  old  Prussian  travelkr,  agree  with 
those  which  Campbell  received  from  the  lips  of  a  Ilott<!ntot 
chief. 

Burchell,  it  is  stated,  could  discover  no  nligiun  in  (he 
Bachapine  KatHr.s.  Nevertheless,  and  Lubbock  allows  it 
himself  elsewhere,  we  find  in  the  writings  of  this  traveller 
that  the  Bachapines  believed  in  a  malevolent  being  called 
Moidiimo,  to  whom  they  attribute  everything  of  an  un- 
pleasant nature  which  happens  to  them.  To  defeml  them- 
selves against  him  they  cover  them.selves  with  amulets,  ami 
they  hold  many  tither  superstition.s.  It  is  evident  that 
Burchell  wjus  not  ac<|uainte»l  with  everything  which  the 
Bachapines  believe«l,  either  becau.se  he  ditl  n«»t  attach  great 
importance  to  the  invest igati«in,  or  becntise  he  wa.s  preventitl 
by  tlie  difficulty  which  Kulben  has  mentione<l,  and  which  I 
have  pointed  out  above. 

Thus  the  Bachapines  believe  in  a  superior,  biit  evil  iK-ing. 
in  a  kind  of  devil.  It  would  be  very  singtdar  if  tluy  ilid 
not  believe  in  a  njycii's  of  God.  Schwcinfurth  believeH  ho 
h;is  discovered  .something  similar  amotig  the  Bongos  ;  but  ho 
hiuLself  insi.sts  .several  times  upon  the  difficulty  of  determin- 
ing exactly  what  to  l)elieve  in  questions  of  this  kind.  Let 
us  admit,  h(»wever,  that  this  may  be  true  in  the  cn.se  of  thcj*© 
Negroes  as  also   in   th'.it  of  the   Bachapines.     We  can  only 


4$  2  The  HuDian  Species. 

regard  it  as  an  accidental  ami  local  phenomenon,  and  in  no 
way  as  a  character  of  race.  I  shall  return  later  to  the 
N(.'i>-roes  ;  I  will  now  only  add  a  few  words  with  reference  to 
the  Bachapines. 

This  popidation  is  ordy  a  portion  of  the  Bechuana  Kaffir 
race.  Now,  thanks  to  Livingstone,  M.  Cazalis,  and  others, 
we  have,  upon  the  suhject  of  the  religions  beliefs  of  these 
tribes  in  '^eneral,  details  which  are  very  niinnte  and  of  incon- 
tcbtable  authenticity.  Tiie  Basutus  have  their  legends,  their 
cosmogony,  and  their  rudimentary  mythology.  They  admit 
the  existence  of  a  being  who  dc-sfroys  hy  thunder,  they  give 
to  him  the  name  oi  Morcua,  literally,  InlcUifjcnt  lie'imj  ivko 
■18  above,  they  have,  moreover,  Molimos,  a  kind  of  household 
gods,  to  whom  they  oflcr  prayers  and  sacrifices,  and  in  whose 
honour  they  i)uriry  thenisclves  ;  they  believe  in  another  life, 
in  another  world  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  earth,  which 
they  call  the  ahyxs  which  i^s  never  fdled.  The  Bechnanas 
believe  so  strongly  in  ghosts  that  the  fierce  ])ingan  dare  not 
g(»  out  in  the  evening,  for  fear  of  meeting  the  spectre  of 
Chaka,  whom  lie  had  assassinated. 

IV.  The  residt  of  my  investigations  is  exactly  the  oppcsito 
of  that  It)  wiiieh  Sir  John  Lubbock  and  M.  Saint-Ililaire  have 
arrived.  Obliged,  in  my  course  of  instruction,  to  review  all 
liiinian  races,  1  have  sought  atheism  in  the  lowest  as  well  as 
in  the  highest.  1  have  nowhere  met  wilh  it,  except  in 
individuals,  or  in  more  or  less  limited  .schools,  such  lus  those 
which  existed  in  Kun»pe  in  the  last  century,  (»r  which  may 
Ktill  1m;  seen  at  the  jiresent  day. 

("an  it  be  that  analogous  fact,s  have  occurred  elsewhere, 
an<l  that  hoiim;  American  tribes,  some  Polynesian  or  Melane- 
sian  populations,  some  honles  of  Bedunins  may  have  entirely 
lost  the  conception  of  the  «livinity  and  another  lile  i  Jt  is 
certainly  possible  that  it  may  be  ho.  But  side  by  side  with 
these  tribes  dwell  other  tribis,  other  populations,  (>(  jn'ccittcly 
the  8<une  race,  which  still  pos.sess  a  religious  faith.  Such 
is  indeed  the  result  of  the  examples  <|Uoted  by  Lubbock. 
This  is  tin-  great  jtoinf.      ^Ve   nowhere   meet  with   atheism 


Rt'/ioioiis  CharacitTs—Atluiini.  4S3 

except  in  an  erratic  condition.  In  every  phwe,  and  at  all 
times,  the  mass  of  populations  have  escaped  it ;  we  nowhere 
find  either  a  great  huuian  race,  or  even  a  division  l.ow.v.r 
unimportant  of  that  race,  professing  atheism. 

Such  is  tiic  result  of  an  in<niiry  which  I  am  |ii.stiJiL(l  in 
calling  conscii-ntious,  and  which  cumiiK-nced  hefore  I  itssniiird 
the  anthropological  professorship.  It  is  true  that  in  thes.- 
researches  I  have  proceeded  and  have  formed  my  conclusions, 
not  as  a  thinker,  a  l»eli».ver,  or  as  a  philosopher,  who  are 
all  more  or  less  under  the  inlluence  of  an  ideal  which  they 
accept  or  oppose,  but  exclusively  (w  a  naturalist,  whose  chief 
aim  is  to  seek  for  and  stntf  fact h. 

In  the  scientific  study  of  religions  we  nmst  avoid  acting 
in  the  manner  of  the  physiologist,  who,  having  experimented 
upon  the  vertebrata  alone,  refused  to  recognise  the  charac- 
teristic functions  of  animal  life  in  the  lower  animals,  lx?cause 
they  were  in  those  ciises  simpler  and  more  obscure.  Here, 
more  perhaps  than  elsewhere,  we  shouhl  imitate  m<Mleni 
naturalists,  who  have  traa-d  the  fnndamental  functions  even 
in  the  lowest  molluscs  and  zodjilivt.s  win  rr  .ill  special  onmni- 
zation  is  ofteri  w.uifing. 

The  ]thysiidogist  does  not  deny  the  e.xi.steiice  of  a  pheno- 
menon because  it  occurs  in  a  j)lace,  and  by  meth«Kls,  dilVerent 
to  those  to  which  he  is  accustome«l.  In  almost  all  animals, 
even  to  the  lowest,  rhymitication  takes  place  in  the  interior 
of  the  bocly.  In  the  I'hy.salia  the  same  physioloj^ieal  act  in 
jK'rforme*!  externally,  by  the  numemus  appendages  which 
.serve  for  both  arms  and  mouth  to  these  singidar  zoophytes. 
In  spite  of  the  stningene.s.s  of  the  pnKVss,  the  function  hiw 
neither  tlisappeared,  nor  change«l  its  nature  in  the  eyes  of 
the  scientitic  man. 

The  naturalist  who  studies  the  hi.story  of  man,  that  is  to 
^ay,  the  anthropologist,  should  neither  act  nor  judge  otlur- 
wi.se.  Hywever  .simple  or  incomplete,  however  naive  and 
childish,  however  absurd  it  may  \k\  a  belief  shonUi  not  lose 
its  character  in  his  eyes,  if  it  has  uuy  connection  with  that 
element  which  is  common  and  e.ssiii(i;il  to  all  nIi'_Mons. 


4 84  The  Ihivian  Species. 

Now,  whatever  the  dogmas  and  doctrines  of  the  hitter  may 
be,  we  may  accept  as  a  general  ft)rinuhi,  whicli  embraces  them 
all,  the  two  following  points  :  a  belief  in  beings  superior  to 
man  and  capable  of  exercising  a  good  or  evil  influence  upon 
his  destiny  ;  and  the  conviction  that  the  existence  of  man  is 
not  limited  to  the  present  life,  but  that  there  remains  for 
him  a  future  beyond  the  grave. 

Every  people,  every  man,  believing  these  two  things,  is 
religious,  and  observation  shows  more  and  more  clearly  every 
day  the  universality  of  this  character. 

Like  intelligence  and  morality,  religious  feeling  has,  more- 
over, its  several  degrees  and  manifestations.  To  seek  for  these 
manifestations,  to  determine  their  nature  and  intensity  in  the 
various  human  groups,  must  be  the  task  of  the  antliropolo- 
gi.st.  In  order  to  be  faithful  to  the  moilern  method,  he  must 
neglect  nothing.  Sometimes  the  most  rudimentary  religion 
will  have  for  him  a  greater  interest  than  one  which  is 
fully  developed,  because  it  expo.ses  more  clearly  the  j)rimary 
religi<jus  elements.  In  their  progressive  development,  in  the 
harmony  or  discord  existing  between  this  development  and 
that  of  the  intelligence  or  morality,  he  will  find  many  charac- 
teristic features  suitable  for  distinguishing  races,  and  some- 
times their  subdivisions. 

V.  The  point  of  view  taken  by  the  naturalist  differs,  then, 
in  certain  respects,  from  that  which  has  hitherto  been 
ailopted  by  the  greater  number  of  eminent  men,  who  have 
cndcavdured  to  establish  the  t^cinire  of  relli/lonH.  Even 
M.  liinile  L5urnouf,  who  has  so  clearly  characterised  this  new 
Hcicnce,  wlio  has  shown  ho  admirably  in  what  respects  it 
differs  from  theology,  who  has  so  jtistly  insisted  upon  the 
necessity  of  enlarging  the  area  (tf  studies  of  this  kind,  and  of 
no  longer  connning  oiirKclvcs  to  the  beliefs  of  ancient  and 
mn<h'rn  Eurn|M'aiis,  seems  to  me  to  liave  yielded  to  the 
prejudices  which  lu'  opposes. 

In  fact,  this  author  divides  religions  into  t/rcat  and  HinaU, 
'I'ho  former  in  his  opinion  are:  ( 'hristianity,  Judaism. 
Mahoniedunihrn,  lirahinanisni,  and   iSuddhistn.      He  turns  his 


Rciioious  Characters — Small  Religions.      485 

attention  to  these  only,  leaving  all  others  in  the  baikground. 
M.  Burnouf  may,  it  is  true,  argue  from  the  relative  number 
of  adherents. 

The  following  are,  in  fact,   from  the  latest  researches  of 
M.  Hulnicr,  the  general  religious  statistics  of  the  globe. 


{Catholics 200  millions, 

rrotcstants 110  „ 

firt'C'ks SO  „ 

Various  sects Kt  „ 

i  I?u<l(lhislH 5<H)  „ 

\  iiraliriiiiiists ].",()  ,, 

N<in-('hri-iii:ins,    '  .Mahitmeilans           .         .         .         .  J>0  „ 

yjl'i  milliuiis.     )  Israelites t»4  ., 

Known  different  religions     .         .  2^0  ., 

Unknown  religions  .        .        .     .  10  ,. 


Tot.ll         .         .  1  :('.»!•  i       ., 

The  same  author  gives  about  one  thinisand  as  the  numltcr 
of  the  religions  or  sects  into  wliiih  mankind  is  divided.  The 
majority  is  un<jut.stio!iably  greatly  on  the  side  of  the  small 
religions,  which  proscnt,  at  kiust  in  certain  respects,  a  variety 
of  conception  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  all  that  has  been 
observed  in  the  groat.  M.  Binnouf  acts,  tlu  n-fore,  like  the 
ntituralist,  who  would  form  liis  judgment  UjK»n  tlic  animal 
kingdom  from  the  vcrtebrata  alone,  and  would  neglect  nil 
the  rest,  that  is  to  say,  three-fourths  of  the  fundamental,  and 
a  vt-ry  considorable  number  of  the  socon«lary  lypfs. 

Without  even  mentioning  Christianity,  the  gieut  religions 
of  M.  Burnouf  are  doubtless  of  inteR'st  to  us  in  many 
irspect.s,  on  acconnt  of  the  relations  whith  many  of  them 
present  with  the  beliefs  of  almost  all  KurojK'ans,  and  al.M) 
from  the  historical,  .social,  and  political  im|xirtance  of  the 
nations  by  whom  they  are  profe.s.sed.  But  considerations  of 
this  kind  are  far  fr«»m  being  everything  in  science.  Mam- 
iiiifers  are  of  much  more  use  to  us  than  worms  or  zoophytes: 
\et  the  zoologi.st  takes  as  much  interest  in  the  latter  as  in 
I  he  former;  and  it  becomes  more  evi<lent  every  day  how 
useful,  and  often  how  necessaiy  the  study  of  these  simplified 


4B6  The  Human  Specks, 

orgaiiisins  is,  for  tlic  better  understanding  of  the  more 
complex  organisms  of  liighcr  animals. 

The  examination  of  tlie  »mall  religions  will  render  an 
analogous  service  to  the  science  of  the  great  religions.  It 
will  be,  perhaps,  amongst  the  former  that  we  shall  be  forced 
to  seek  the  origin  of  those  beliefs  which  now  include  so 
many  millions  of  men ;  under  one  form  or  another,  we  shall, 
doubtless,  often  meet  with  traces  of  them  side  by  side  wilh, 
or  even  in  the  midst  of  the  most  fully  devt-lopcd  religions, 
and  tliose  which  arc  apparently  most  widely  separated 
from  them.  Upon  these  two  points  our  opinions  will 
nt)t  I  think  clash  with  those  of  M.  Burnouf  and  Sir  John 
Lubbock. 

VI.  The  latter,  in  his  Origins  of  Civilization,  has,  in  fact, 
endeavoured  to  trace  the  gradual  development  of  religion  in 
the  inferior  human  races.  Unfortunately,  he  seems  to  me  to 
have,  a.s  a  rule,  undervalued  the  greater  number  of  these 
conceptions,  and  to  have  ignored  the  remarkably  elevated 
character  which  many  of  them  exhibit.  This  alone  may 
have  led  him  to  consider  religion  as  projxjrtional  to  civiliz-i- 
tion,  and  developing  only  with  the  latter.  I  cannot  share 
this  view;  an<l  the  ilisagreement  between  Lubbock  and 
inyself  is  al.H)  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  importance 
which  I  hav<'  attached  to  certain  evidences  which  si'eni  to 
have  escaped  the  notice  of  the  English  savant.  A  few 
examples  will  justify  these  observations. 

l)f  all  the  iM'opIcs,  cxjucerning  whose  beliels  we  possess 
an  almost  sullicient  amount  of  information,  the  Australians 
certainly  tak«!  the  first  place.  l'j)on  this  point  I  a!u  entirely 
aj^ftecd  with  Sir  John  Lublxtck.  liut  1  cannot  hold  witli 
hin«,  that  thrsi-  populations  do  not  Inlieve  in  a  god  of  any 
kind  ;  that  they  n«\<  r  ..IV.  i  privis;;  that  they  have  no  form 
«»f  worKhip  at  /ill. 

In  Htip|Mirt  of  hi.-,  opinion  my  eminent,  colleague  cpioti's 
Kyre,  (.'(dlinH,  ami  Alact  Jillivray ;  but  he  forget.s  Cunningham, 
DawHon,  Wilkc.s,  Sulvado,  antl  Stanbridge.  In  comparing  the 
information  obtained  by  t lust.-  travellers  in  different  parts  of 


J^cltoious  Characters — Australians.         48 7 

New  lfull;m<l,  wo  everywhere  observe  a  similar  foiindutiun  in 
the  beliefs,  wliicli  well  deserve  to  be  termed  reln/tinifi. 

The  Australians  admit  a  good  principle,  callt  d,  according 
to  the  locjility,  Coyan,  Motoijon,  P upper inibul,  who  is  s«jme- 
timos  spoken  of  by  them  a.s  a  kind  of  giant,  at  others  lus  a 
kind  of  spirit.  Coyan  is  beneficent,  and  regards  the  recover)' 
of  lost  children  as  almost  his  special  duty.  To  obtain  his 
favour,  darts  are  offered  to  him.  If  the  child  is  not  found,  it 
is  supposed  that  he  is  angry.  In  Xew-Nursie,  Motogon  is 
the  creator.  J[e  ha«l  only  to  cry :  Earth,  appear !  Water, 
appear!  and  to  breatlu?  in  order  to  give  birth  to  all  things 
that  exist.  Without  being  so  precise,  the  natives  of  Tvnil 
Liike  ascribe  the  creation  of  the  sun  to  Pupi)erinibid,  who 
l>elong«.'d  to  a  chuss  of  beings  resembling  men,  but  who  had 
been  transported  to  heaven  before  the  appearance  of  the 
present  race.  In  south-east  Australia,  Coyan  watches  over 
the  evil  principle,  called  Potoyan,  Wandoiuj,  Cienffa,  who 
roams  about  at  night  to  devour  men  a.s  well  a.s  children,  and 
against  whom  they  protect  them.selves  by  fire.  The  moon, 
again,  is,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Australians,  a  malevolent 
being,  whose  evil  inHuence  is  cotmti-racte^l  by  the  sun. 
Several  good  and  evil  geini,  lialuuifHilft  and  WidujuIs,  com- 
plete this  rudimentary  njythology,  which  has  al.so  its  fabulous 
monsters,  its  great  .serpent.s  hidden  in  rleep  rivers,  etc.  The 
Austndians  In-lieve,  moreover,  in  a  kind  of  immortality  of  the 
soul,  which  pa.s.ses  successively  Irom  one  bo«ly  U)  another. 
But  Ix-'fore  finding  a  new  alxxle,  the  spirits  of  tlio  dea<i 
wander  for  a  certain  length  of  time  in  the  forest."*,  and  the 
natives  very  often  affirm  that  they  have  b«'en  wen  or  heanl. 

True,  the.sc  arc  not  very  noble  btdiefs.  There  is,  how- 
ever, here  .««omething  of  a  very  different  nature  from  wh.it 
Sir  John  Lubbock's  view  of  the  matter  would  lead  us  to 
expect  The  idea  of  creation  by  the  wonl  and  breath  of  a 
ptnverful  ln-ing  is  a  noble  eoneeption,  and  apjMafs  distinrtly 
in  .several  trilns:  oblations  and  prayer  have  U-en  proveil  in 
others.  In  all  we  observe  the  gcnn  of  that  belief  in  dual- 
ism, that  antigonisiu  of  Knevoleiit  and  malevolent  super- 


4SS  The  Human  Species. 

human  powci-s,  which  is  found  in  tkc  greatest  religions,  and 
which  is  the  basis  even  of  Christianity.  As  to  the  boHef  in 
another  Hfe,  no  one  has  of  hite,  1  believe,  denied  the  possession 
of  it  to  the  Australians. 

In  treatinj.,'  of  the  reli,t,non  of  the  Polynesians,  Lubbock 
quotes  chieHy  Mariner,  Williams,  and  Sir  George  Grey. 
These  authorities  are  unexceptional  as  regards  their  state- 
ment upon  what  they  liave  discovered.  But  their  silence 
upon  certain  points  does  not  justify  us  in  concluding  that 
there  are  real  gaps  in  those  cases.  Other  travellers  have 
gone  much  further  than  they  went,  known  what  they  were 
ignorant  of,  and  have  imparted  the  knowledge  to  us. 
Moereuhout  was  the  first,  I  believe,  to  publish  original  docu- 
nH'iits  upon  the  most  ancient  Tahitian  traditions.  Others 
followed  ;  and,  thanks  to  favourable  circumstances,  I  have 
been  able  to  profit  by  these  researches.  In  the  work  which 
T  pidilished  eight  years  before  that  of  Lubbock,  I  reviewed 
and  discussed  the  principal  docummts  for  which  we  arc 
indebted  to  Captain  Lavaud,  General  llibourt,  the  missionary 
Orsmond,  M.  Ciaussin,  and  others.  All  these  documents, 
obtaincil  from  chiefs  belonging  to  the  most  ancient  families 
and  well  versed  in  the  traditions  of  tlieii'  ancestors,  have  the 
a|»i)earance  of  incontestable  authenticity,  and  throw  an  en- 
tirely fresh  light  upon  the  early  history  of  religion,  at  least 
in  'rahili.  1  believe  I  have  defined  with  sufficii'iit  clearness 
what  thes(.'  religious  Ijeliefs  were,  and  established  beyond  a 
tloubt  that,  si(h'  by  side  with  notions  arising  entirely  from 
su|M'rst  it  inn,  the  'I'ahitians  li.id  attained  conceptions  reinark- 
al»le  for  their  purity  and  elevation. 

Let  us  first  prove  that  in  the  island  where  W'.iliis  declined 
\ui  liad  not  be«Mi  able  to  discover  tin;  lea«t  trace  of  religious 
worship,  this  worship  was,  on  the  contrary,  mixed  iip  with 
the  most  trivial  acts  of  life.  It  was  even  productive  of 
meliiTicholy  conHeiiuenceH.  Foinndlunn  reigned  supreme- 
'J'rusting  in  his  religioiis  observances,  in  the  prayers  of  his 
priest**,  ami  in  the  indulgenee  of  his  gods,  the  I'ahitian 
thought    himself  at    liberty    to    do    almost   anything.       lie 


Reii^'ous  Characters — Polynesians.         4 89 

coiubiuoci  the  strongest  and  most  shnpk'  f;iitli  with  nmnncre 
rt-nuukahh.'  for  tlioir  violence  and  licentiousness,  lint  dix'H 
not  all  Europe  of  the  Middle  Aj;es,  and,  even  at  the  present 
time,  do  not  many  provinces,  which  in  other  respects  are  by  no 
means  behind  the  age,  present  jjhenomena  of  a  similar 
nature. 

Yet  the  Tahitians  believed  in  another  life,  in  rewards  and 
punishment  after  death.  Their  paradise,  of  which  they  gave 
an  enticing  descri])tion,  was  reserved  for  the  chiefs,  and  for 
those  who  had  made  sutficient  offerings  to  the  gmls,  that  is 
to  say,  to  the  priests.  Wjus  not,  and  is  not  this  still,  the 
object  of  pious  donatitjns? 

The  souls  of  the  remainder,  whose  life  had  been  regular, 
went  at  once  into  Po,  into  obscurity,  a  kind  of  limfx),  where 
there  seems  to  have  been  neither  pain  nor  pleasure  of  a  very 
decided  nature.  But  guilty  souls  were  condemned  to  under- 
L'o  a  certain  number  of  times,  a  scratching  of  the  fiesh  upon 
every  hone.  Their  sins  expiated,  they  too  were  admitted 
into  Po.  The  Tahitians  thus  admit  a  kind  of  purgatorv'  and 
no  hell.  It  shoulil  also  be  observed  that  the  punishment 
indicted  upon  the  guilty  supposes  a  kind  of  materiality  of 
the  soul,  liut  is  not  this  also  the  case  with  those  torment.s 
which  nearly  all  our  Christian  popidations  still  believe  to  be 
reserved  for  the  sinner  cast  into  the^^fm***  of  hdl. 

We  find  in  the  pantheon  of  the  Tahitians  a  hierarchy 
etpial  to,  but  much  exceeding  in  number  that  of  the  CJn.-eks 
and  Romans.  At  tlie  lowest  extremity  of  the  scale  we  find 
iMniMuenible  Tin*,  whose  duty  it  was  to  preside  in  every  phic«! 
over  the  smallest  actions,  the  smallest  movements  of  (hu 
soul,  even  to  the  wishes  of  da ij  and  ni'jht.  Al)ovc  the 
latter  come  the  OromotoiuiH,  who  represented  the  domestic 
'^ods,  the  I^ires  and  Manes  of  the  ancients.  The  inftriitr 
.l/t>Krt*,  dwelling  upon  the  earth,  inhabiting  rivers,  woods, 
\alleys,  and  mountains,  answer  very  fiiirly  to  the  Faims, 
Sylvans,  Dryads.  ()rea«ls,  &c.  Moreover,  it  is  from  among 
the  divinities  of  this  chuss  that  tiie  various  profi'.«.si«»ns  cho«»so 
their  patrons.     The  singers,  chorographers,  and  doctors  had 


490  The  Human  Species. 

four,  sailors  twelve,  and  agriculturists  thirteen.  The  gods  of 
the  first  rauk  were  Atouas  j)fope)'lij  so  called.  They  also 
wore  equally  numerous.  But  nine  of  them,  created  (priori) 
directly  by  Taaroa,  before  the  formation  of  man,  composed, 
correctly  speaking,  the  divine  family. 

Finally,  above  all  those  divinities,  stood  the  Supreme  God. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  conception  which  the 
Tahitians  formed  of  the  latter.  Traditions,  collected  at  dif- 
ferent times  by  different  persons,  and  from  equally  different 
sources,  agree  perfectly  upon  this  point.  The  song  received 
by  Moerenhout  from  the  lips  of  a  harepo  began  thus  :  "  He 
was ;  Taaroa  was  his  name  ;  he  existed  in  space  ;  no  earth, 
no  heaven,  no  men."  The  manuscript  of  Cleneral  Ribourt 
describes  him  as  to'ivi,  having  had  no  parents,  and  existing 
from  time  immemorial.  The  sacred  song  translated  by 
M.  Goussin  begins  Avith  the  following  declaration.  "Taaroa 
the  gnat  onlcrcr,  is  the  origin  of  the  earth.  Taaroa  is  t«)ivi ; 
he  has  no  father,  no  posterity." 

The  Tahitians  regarded  this  uncreated  God,  moreover,  as 
alnmst  a  pure  spirit,  and  he  was  unthtubtedly  so  in  the  esti- 
mation of  the  more  enlightened  islanders.  Certain  traditions 
represent  him  with  a  hody ;  but,  says  General  Ilibourt's 
manusnipt,  this  ])o(ly  is  liiri.sihlr,  and  fnither  it  is  nierely, 
"  a  shell  which  is  frefpiently  renewed,  and  which  the  God  loses, 
as  a  bird  its  feathers."  In  Moerenhout's  song,  it  is  he  who 
changes  himself  into  the  universe  ;  but  "  the  great  and 
KJicred  universe  is  only  the  shell  of  Taaroa."  In  that  of  M. 
(latiHsin,  Taaroa  raises  his  head  out  of  his  covering,  which 
disappears  and  becfunes  the  earth.  In  the  magnificent 
dialogue,  also  translated  by  M.  Gaussin,  and  in  wliieh  'i'aaroa 
cnll.H,  go  to  KjK*ak,»ipon  all  the  different  parts  of  the  universe, 
who  in  turn  answer  him,  it  is  said  :  "  The  so\d  of  Taaroa 
rf'Tnained  (J<m1."  Tufortunately,  after  the  creation  was 
finished,  this  God  seems  to  have  rejussunnd  his  state  of 
re|)ose,  and  to  ha\e  I»ft  to  the  inferior  deities  the  government 
of  this  Wf»rld. 

We  see  here,  again,  that  as  far  as  the  first  conception  is 


Rt'lio ious  Characters — Red- Skins.  49 1 

concerned,  we  are  far  al)i)ve  tliu  Zens  of  the  Greeks,  or  the 
Jupiter  of  the  R(»nKUis.  Anil  vi-t  who  wouhl  drrain  of  com- 
paring the  Tahitian  civili/jiti<>n  witli  the  civiliaitiun  or  the 
intellectual  productions  of  the  Greeks  ?  It  is  one  of  the  many 
facts  which  show  the  indepen»lence  of  the  phenomena  of  the 
intelligence  and  those  of  the  religious  feeling. 

It  is  not  in  Tahiti  alone  that  this  elevated  spiritualism  has 
been  observed,  though  concealed  under  very  different  ap|Mar- 
ances.  The  rude  images,  the  tovs  placed  in  the  invrai  have 
been  regarded  by  almost  all  travellers  as  statues  of  atouas. 
They  are,  in  reality,  nothing  more  than  tafn'maclea  hollow 
within,  and  destined  to  receive  difft^rent  objects,  oblatiitns, 
etc.  A  priest  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  told  Byron  that,  wh»n 
a  child,  it  happened  that  he  eat  something  which  had  been 
deposited  in  the  sacred  images.  Surpri.><eil  and  reprimanded 
by  his  father,  he  excu.scd  himself  by  saying  that  he  had 
found  out  by  various  experiments  that  these  g«xls  of  wtx>d 
neither  saw  nor  heard.  The  old  priest  then  siiid  to  him  in  a 
severe  tone  :  "  My  son,  the  wo<kJ,  it  is  true,  neither  sees  nor 
hears  ;  but  the  spirit  which  is  above  sees  and  hears  all,  and 
punishes  wicked  actions."  ^ 

Do  many  anidUg  ourselves  draw  suth  a  clear  distinctiuu 
between  the  xjtii  it  and  the  n'oixl  f 

A  remarkable  feature  of  the  Tahitian  religion  is,  that  wu 
find  in  it  n<»  trace  of  Manichrisnt.  They  have,  in  fact,  only 
(fOilx,  anil  n<t  dtviU,  It  is  true  that  the  priest.s  .Hjwke  in  tlu* 
name  of  the  Atuu.us  and  that  the  Honrrem,  hatetl  and 
feared  in  Tahiti  ;us  t-l.srwhere,  ad«lre.s.setl  tlu'inselvi-s  soh-ly  to 
the  Tiis.  IJut  the  latter  were  nut  in  any  way  con-siilennl  as 
antagonistic  to  the  Atouas.  Moerenhuut  t4.>lls  us  that  their 
images  might  })e  seen  as  guardians  at  the  entrance  t»f  tlie 
moral  and  .s;icretl  enclosures. 

Although  not  so  clearly  tiefined  as  those  of  the  Tahitian.'*, 
tiie  religious  beliefs  of  the  Algonijuin  and  Mingwe  Ue«l- 
Skins  are  very  su|>eriur  in  some  resjHct.s.  Their  Urait  Spirit, 
the  Michubou  of  the  Algompiins,  the  AyrtHcour  of  the 
Iroquoi.-^,  is  the  Father  of  all  exi.sting  things.     To  him  alone 


492  *        The  Human  Species. 

true  worship  is  rendered  ia  smoking  tlie  sacred  calumet 
towards  the  four  points  of  the  horizon  and  the  zenith.  The 
Creator  of  all  that  exists,  he  is  not  so  disinterested  in  his 
work  as  Tiuiroa.  He  himself,  or  his  messengers,  watch  over 
cliildrcn,  and  direct  the  events  of  the  world.  Again,  it  is  to 
iiim,  before  all  others,  that  the  Red-Skin  addressed  his 
prayers  when  he  asks,  and  his  thanks  when  he  has  gained 
his  demands.  I  might  here  multiply  examples  and  quota- 
tions. I  shall  confine  myself  to  reproducing  in  part  the  song 
of  the  Lenapes  on  the  eve  of  their  departure  for  war,  as  it 
has  been  preserved  for  us  by  Heckewelder.  It  is  a  national 
.song,  and  of  itself  refutes  many  strange  assertions  frequently 
made  with  regard  to  the  populations  who  once  occupied  the 
territory  of  the  United  States. 

"  Oh,  poor  me — who  am  just  about  to  depart  to  fight  the 
enemy — and  know  not  if  I  shall  return — to  enjoy  the  cm- 
braces  of  my  children  and  wife." 

"  Oh,  poor  creature — who  cannot  order  his  own  life — who 
has  no  power  over  his  own  body — but  who  tries  to  do  his 
duty — for  the  happiness  of  his  nation." 

"  Oh,  thou  Great  Spirit  above — take  pity  upon  my 
children — and  upon  my  wife — keep  them  from  sorrowing 
on  my  account — giant  that  I  may  succeed  in  my  enterpri.so 
— that  I  may  kill  my  enemy — and  bring  back  trophies  of 
war." 

"Give  me  stniigth  an<l  courage  to  fight  my  enemy — grant 
that  I  may  return  and  see  my  cliildrcn  again — .see  my  wife 
and  my  relation.s — have  pity  upon  me  and  preserve  my  life — 
and  I  will  oflft-r  to  tiire  a  .sjicrificc." 

it  is  true  that,  afti.T  the  Great  Spirit,  wf  liiid  (lio  IumI- 
Skins  believing  in  mx  imincn.sc  number  of  ManUoun,  one  of 
whom,  iidiabiting  tli<!  centre  of  the  earth,  is  ji  l<in<l  of  tlemon. 
]>ut  these  beings,  whether  good  or  evil,  although  possessing 
an  infiuencc  over  the  destiny  of  man,  have  nothing  of  the 
divine'  character.  1'hcy  are  nothing  more  than  a  kind  of 
genii,  fairies,  ogre.s,  etc.,  more  or  less  resembling  those  men- 
tioned in  Oriental  tales,  an<l  all  ab.solutcly  dependent  upon 


Re/ioio7ts  Characters — Negroes.  493 

the  Great  Spirit.     The  latter  alone  is  omnipotent,  while  the 
evil  spirit  is  weak  and  his  power  is  limited. 

The  belief  iu  anutliLr  life  wius,  moreover,  universal  amonf'st 
these  populations.  Their  ideas  upon  the  other  world,  the 
transmigration  of  souls,  the  niultij)lieity  of  existences  were 
vague  enough  ;  but  in  several  legends,  collected  either  by  the 
first  travellers,  or  in  the  present  century  by  Schoolcraft,  we 
find,  given  in  the  most  explicit  manner,  the  doctrine  of 
recompense  promised  to  the  good,  and  the  torments  which 
await  the  wicked. 

The  Algonquins  and  Mingwcs  deserve  to  be  regarded  as 
monotheists  as  much  as  any  other  people  we  ciin  mention, 
much  more  so  than  the  Arabs  before  Mahomet.  There  i.s, 
moreover,  no  rea.son  to  think  that  these  spiritual  beliefs  were 
due  to  the  exceptional  intelligence  of  an  isolated  individual 
who  played  the  part  of  prophet  after  the  manner  of  Mahomet. 
They  have  all  the  characters  of  a  spontaneous  manifestation 
of  the  instincts  of  the  race  itself.  Now  this  fact  is  the  more 
remarkable,  as  these  Red-Skins,  almost  exclusively  hunters, 
had  scarcely  advanccil  beyund  the  lowest  .sta-,'rs  i)f  th.^  social 
scale. 

The  Negroes  of  thiinca,  much  superior  to  the  Algontpiins 
and  Mingwes,  from  a  eivili/ed  j)oint  of  view,  arc  far  inferior 
to  them  iu  religion.  Still,  to  speak  only  of  their  fet'iaklmix, 
would  be  doing  them  a  great  injustice.  This  is,  in  realitv, 
oidy  a  form  of  superstition  more  or  less  intimately  as.sociated 
with  a  basis  of  far  nobler  beliefs.  Here,  again,  the  greater 
number  of  observers  have  stopped  at  what  was  immo- 
<liately  prcsente«l  to  the  eye ;  other.-*,  however,  have  for- 
tunately been  f'tind  A\ho  have  looked  beneath  these  first 
appi'aranci's. 

Numerous  evidences,  too  unanimous  to  admit  of  doubt, 
prove  that  from  Cape  Verd  to  Cape  Lttpez  the  inhabitants 
believe  in  a  Supreme  Cod,  who  has  created  all  existing  things. 
The  natives  of  Dahomey  hold  that  thisCJod  is  himself  subject 
to  a  more  elevat.d  In-ing.  who,  say  these  Negnx-s,  is  perliaps 
the  God  of  the  Whiti  s.    In  ini.^t  I  i>.  >  if  is  true,  this  supreme 


494  ^^^  Ilnuian  Species. 

Deity  is  regarded  as  governing  tlie  universe  through  the 
agency  of  his  ministers  ;  but  often,  also,  direct  intervention 
is  attributed  to  him.  Petitions,  thanks,  and  prayers,  are 
then  addressed  to  liim,  with  the  formula  of  some  of  which  we 
are  acquainted.  In  that  which  D'Avezac  received  from  the 
lips  of  Oche  Fecoue,  the  Yebous  request  Obba-el-Orum  {King 
of  Heaven)  to  preserve  them  from  illness  and  death.  They 
add  :  "  Orissa  (God)  give  me  prosperity  and  wisdom." 

We  find  that  almost  all  the  natives  of  Guinea,  besides  their 
f/ood  God,  had  their  ertV  82)irif,  also  very  powerful.  Oblations 
are  offered  to  appease  him.  The  Negroes  often  think  that 
they  see  or  hear  him  in  the  night.  We  know  too  well,  how- 
ever, that  the  shores  of  Guinea  are  not  the  only  place  where 
such  visions  have  been  seen  in  imagination. 

'J'hen  come  the  inferior  gods,  very  numerou.s,  and  sometimes 
arranged  in  a  hierarchy.  It  is  they  who  are  sent  into  Fetlf<he8 
to  watch  over  and  protect  man.  The  Fetish,  acconling  to  the 
evidence  of  devout  priests  and  Negroes,  is  not  the  God  him- 
self, but  only  the  abode  of  the  God. 

The  natives  of  Guinea  all  believe  in  another  life,  but  have 
very  diflerent  ideas  upon  this  subject.  In  general  they 
regard  it  as  almost  similar  to  the  present.  Some  have  a 
confused  idea  of  nietemp.sychosis,  or  think  they  are  born  again 
in  a  child.  The  Issinois  believe  in  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  which,  on  leaving  this  earth,  is  born  again  in  another 
world,  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  globe,  and  viec  versd. 
This  is  almost  the  alternating  life,  ixs  conceived  by  Hyp- 
polyte  Kenau<l,  a  distinguished  artillery  oHieir,  and  one  of 
{\u>m  thinkers  who  have  felt  the  want  of  ,iii  <\|)lanation  of 
the  drstiny  of  man. 

The  i(h-a  of  retribution  is  ch-ariy  defined  by  many  (Jiiinean 
tribes.  In  the  opinion  of  many,  the  wise  and  the  intelli- 
gent become  the  messengers  of  the  g(KiH  ;  the  wicked  are 
drowiH'd  in  passing  a  certain  stream,  and  die  for  ever  or 
become  demon.s.  Others  h»)ld  that  the  sotds  of  tho.se  who 
have  led  evil  lives  go  to  the  evil  spirit,  but  can  be  redeemed 
by  oblations  ort'ureil    to  the  gods.      Here,  then,  wu    find    the 


Rc'/i^ioiis  Characlcrs — Superstitious.        495 

Negro  possessing  the  idea  of  ytxir(jator]j  and  of  redemption, 
together  with  that  of  hell. 

VII,  I  think  1  liave  said  enough  thorougldy  to  establish  a 
fact  independent  of  all  hypothesis,  and  which  seems  to  me  to 
be  of  serious  importance.  It  is  that  we  often  find  ideas  of  an  ex- 
tremely elevated  nature,  and  res«  luhling  in  a  singidar  manmr 
those  which  distinguish  the  great  relifjioiut,  existing  in  the 
small,  though  obscured  by  other  notions  of  an  inferior  nature. 
Again,  that  we  must  almost  everywhere,  probably  every- 
where, distinguish  nll[/io)i  from  superstition.  But  before 
we  can,  in  this  civse,  recognise  the  gold  in  the  midst  of  the 
surrounding  dross,  time  is  required,  serious  stuily,  and  a  min«l 
entirely  free  from  prejudice. 

I  grant  that  religion  and  su|>erstition  are  often,  as  it  were, 
fused  into  the  creeds  of  certain  nices,  so  that  the  priest  and 
the  sorcerer  are  confounded  in  one  person.  But  this  is  not 
always  the  case  ;  and,  even  where  the  connection  forms  an 
apparent  confusion,  we  should  unquestionably  endeavour  to 
distinguish  the  two  ekinunts.  Now  this  task  has  lieen  too 
often  neglected  in  dealing  with  inferior  races.  Jlrre  again, 
I  remark  at  each  step  the  prejudicial  influence  of  European 
pride.  The  most  careless  writer  would  certuiidy  not  connect 
with  Christianity,  a.s  it  is  understo<xl  at  the  present  day  in 
France,  the  dismal  or  ludicrous  talcs  collected  in  the  country 
di.striets  by  Vilhnianiue,  Souvestre,  and  others.  He  would 
place  them,  with  all  their  accompanying  practices,  in  what 
may  be  called  the  ])opiihtr  inyt/toloi/i/.  Should  not  also  the 
man  of  science  make  a  similar  di.stinetion,  when  trying  to 
form  a  true  estimation  of  the  religion,  properly  so  ciilled,  of 
barbarous  or  savage  nations? 

To  those  who  ask  how  Fetishism  came  to  be  implanted  in 
Guinea  side  by  sitle  with  the  conception  of  a  Supnine  Being, 
the  creator  and  governor  of  all  that  exist.s  ?  how  noilheni 
populations  coidd  nconcilc  Shamanism  with  the  belief  in 
that  God  of  whom  Ghengis  Khan  hiu\  fonned  such  a  groat 
and  elevated  iilea  ?  I  a.>k  again  how  the  strangest  sujxi  n 
t  ions  came  to  b«'  .ici-.-iiiiil  \u  f.>riM»  r  fitni-  l>v  .ill  Chii-  n 
23 


496  The  Human  Species. 

sects  ?  how  it  is  that  they  still  exist  amongst  us  ?  True,  in 
our  enlightened  classes,  neither  Protestant  nor  Catholic 
would  enter  upon  a  course  of  sorcery,  of  which  there  were  so 
many  instances  but  two  or  three  centuries  ago,  and  which 
were  so  often  followed  by  condemnation  and  capital  punish- 
ment. In  our  more  remote  country  districts,  however,  the 
belief  in  sorcery  is  as  strong  as  it  was  universal  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  news]iapers  inform  us  from  time  to  time  of 
action.s,  proving  that,  if  left  tt»  themselves,  these  populations 
would  willingly  burn  the  unfortunate  victims  su.spected  of 
\\xi\\u(^  i(Ad  fortunes ;  protect  themselves  against  ti'/ft7iC)Y//^ 
the  evil  eye,  etc.,  these  same  populations  have  often  had 
recourse  to  practices  strongly  resembling  those  signalized 
by  travellers  as  the  proof  of  inferiority  in  certain  races.  In 
reality,  tiie  amulets  of  our  jieasants  are  identical  with  the 
gnsfjria  of  the  Negroes. 

In  all  the.se  respects  and  in  many  dtlit-rs,  all  Aryan 
Ciiristians  have  believed  in  that  which  we  pruutlly  reproach 
the  Negroes  and  Mongols  with  believing.  All  Christian 
communities  have  sanctiom'd,  and  sometimes  sanctified, 
these  absurd  superstitions. 

The  anthropologist,  who  has  to  do  with  science  and  not 
with  theology,  who  ha,s  to  siek  the  pure  element  in  tljo 
inferior  religions,  ought  not,  on  the  other  Iwrnd,  to  liesitato 
in  pointing  out  that  singular  admixture  of  alloy  in  the 
superior  religions,  of  wliiih  I  have  just  qiioteil  a  familiar 
(.'xample. 

From  this  double  form  of  invi'stigalion,  a  general  fact, 
to  which  I  have  often  called  attention,  will,  I  think,  l)e  estab- 
lished in  the  minds  of  all,  a  fact  which  may  be  formulated 
in  the  following  tenns  ;  great  or  small,  religions  are  prin- 
cipally connecti'tl  by  the  most  elevatid  and  the  lowest 
element  jKWsciHed  by  each  ;  they  are  principally  sc^parated  by 
intermediary  forms  and  conceptions, 

VIII.  The  following  fact  hits,  in  several  instances,  been 
remarked,  that  a  religion  wlien  replaced  by  another,  leaves 
upon  the  latter  more  or  Icsa  evident  traces.     Often  also,  the 


Rc/igious  Characters.  497 

divinities  of  tlic  former,  without  entirely  tlisapiK'arinjj.  will 
iin(lerjL,n)  ji  siufjular  process  of  (le;,'rml!ition,  and  find  a  place 
only  in  the  region  of  j)opular  superstition.  Which  of  our 
readers  will  not  call  to  mind  the  articles,  at  once  so  charming 
and  so  impressive,  of  M.  Heine  upon  the  poor  gotls  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  Olympus,  passed  into  legendary  characters  ? 
These  representatives  of  classical  mythology  have,  in  the 
he^art  of  popular  beliefs,  become  jissru-iated  with  Germanic 
and  Scandinavian  divinities;  but  have  not  both  hid  pre- 
decessors ? 

From  Quaternary  ages  to  the  pres(^nt  time,  iii,iii>  races 
have  inhabited  Europe.  None,  undoubtedly,  have  entirely 
passed  away.  They  have  been  successively  subjugated, 
and  more  or  less  absorbeil.  Can  the  beliefs  even  of  our 
most  remote  ancestors  be  entirely  lost  ?  I  think  not.  Un- 
doubtedly, a  portion  has  been  forgotten,  but  very  probabK- 
al.so  a  large  part  has  survived,  more  or  lew  modiHeil  by  the 
additions  of  each  fresh  immigration.  In  this  manner  would 
be  formcfl,  little  by  little,  that  popular  mythology  which  ha.s 
resisted  all  ortici.il  dKctriiies.  and  even  fnimd  a  plai'e  bv  tlnir 
side. 

What  has  haj)jieneil  in  our  own  ca.sc  cannut  but  have 
happened  elsewhere.  Future  research  will  |>crhaps  show 
this  to  be  the  cause  of  the  common  element  of  the  religiou.H 
beliefs  of  peoples,  separated  by  their  different  degrees  of 
civiliz;iti(»n,  as  well  ;is  by  geogniiihical  position. 

IX.  M.  Burnouf  has  remarked  that  the  ttcUnce  of  rrlitjlon 
does  not  as  yet  e.xist.  This  is  tnio,  especially  fivm  the  p«)int 
of  view  to  which  I  have  just  ailled  attention.  All  gemnd 
classification  is,  then,  premature.  Before  atti-mpting  one,  let 
us  wait  till  we  are  at  lejust  fairly  acquainted,  not  only  with 
the  great  ma.ss  of  <loctriues  Hupp«)rted  by  profound  meta- 
physics, which  have  lK«n  accepte<l  by  civilize*!  nati»»ns,  but 
also  with  the  simpler,  more  artle.-vs  Iw-liefs  which  precitled 
them,  some  of  which  are  still  in  existence.  Then  only  shall 
we  be  in  a  position  to  trace  the  genemi  form  and  the  sub- 
divisions "f  th"  -  V.  ral  manifestations  of  the  religious  faculty 


49^  The  JliiDian  Species. 

common  to  all  liuinaii  bL-iiii,rs.  Thcu,  also,  \vo  shall  be  in  a 
position  to  follow  the  tlovelopment  of  this  faculty,  and  to 
mark  its  stajjes,  by  a  process  similar  to  that  of  the  cm- 
bryijgenist,  who  stiulios  the  different  phases  undergone  by 
the  same  being  before  attaining  its  state  of  perfection. 

Such  as  it  is  however,  consisting  at  present  of  isolated 
facts  only,  or  of  facts  merely  collected  into  groups,  the  scienci- 
of  religions  ha«s  already  acquired  a  marked  importance  in 
anthropology.  It  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  one  of  the  funda- 
mental characters  of  the  human  species ;  it  furnishes  facts  of 
so  independent  a  nature  as  to  serve  for  the  characterization 
of  races  ;  it  reveals  relations  ;  it  adds  its  testimony  to  that  of 
philology  in  throwing  light  upon  the  filiation  of  certain  races, 
in  attesting  the  existence  of  ancient  communications  between 
nations  long  regarded  a.s  entirely  separate.  In  these  various 
Inspects  it  should  not  be  neglected  by  those  who  wish  to 
consider  the  natural  history  of  man  as  a  whole. 


nil;   I. MX 


WORKS  OF  AUSTIN  FLINT,  Jr.,  M.  D. 


The  Physiology  of  Man ;  designed  to  represent  the 
Existing  State  of  Physiological  Science,  as  applied  to  the  Functions 
of  the  Human  Body.  Complete  in  6  vols.,  8vo.  (loth,  |'J2.«X>; 
sheep,  t;27.00;  or,  per  volume,  cloth,  $-1.50;  sheep,  |5.60. 

Vol.      I.  I.VTRODrcTioN ;  The  Dlood;  CincrLATioN;  RE^muTiox. 
Vol.    II.  Alime.ntation;  Dioestios;  Absorttion;  LTiirii  ami  Cutlb. 
Vol.  HI.  Secuetion;   Exchetion;   DvrTLE»«  Olasw;  Nltbitioj*;  Ammal 

Heat;  Movements;  Voice  ano  Si-kecu. 
Vol.  IV.  The  Nervois  System. 
Vol.    V.  Special  Sk.sses;  Oenehatiox. 
Oener^vl  Index  to  toe  Work. 

"The  work  Is  free  from  technicalities  and  purely  profcsRlonal  '.frms,  and, 
instead  of  only  bcini;  adapted  to  the  a»c  of  the  nicdlral  farnlty,  will  be  ftjond  of 
Interest  to  the  jjencral  render  who  dcslro*  clrar  and  coiiclne  luforiuallon  on  the 
BUhJoct  uf  IU.1U  physical."— -Vrtf  York  Evenimj  Pott. 

The  Physiological  Effects  of  Severe  and  Pro- 
tracted Muscular  £xorciae ;  witli  Spiii.il  UilVniicc  lo  Us 
IiifliHiuc  upon  till-  KxTciiim  nf  Nitrojren.    1  Vv«!.,  12ino.  Cloth,  $1.00. 

A   Text-book   of  Human    Physiology ;   w«  MK'nt-d 

Inr  the  Use  of  I'ractitioiH rs  and  Studint.s  of  Mi-tliiine.  Illiwtralcd 
by  three  Lithogrmphic  PlaU'S,  and  three  hundred  and  thirteen  Wood- 
cuts.    1  vol.,  imperial  «vo.     Cloth,  «'■  '"^^     '» ?.  ♦T  "" 

On  the  Source  of  Muscular  Power.      Arptitnen!» 

and  ConcliHion.'<  dr.imi  Imm  ot....r».itiont  ujMin  the  Human  Subject, 
under  Con.litions  of  Kesl  and  of  Muscular  KxcrvUe.  1  vol.,  I2»a 
Cloth,  1 1.00. 


D.  AITLETON  i  CO.,  rr»LiaatM,  M»  it  WI  Broadwat.  N   Y. 


HEALTH, 


HOW     TO     PROMOTE     IT. 

By  RICHARD    McSHERRY.   M.  D.. 

Professor  of  Princijilcs  nnd  I'ra<'tiiT  of  Medicine,  I'ni vi  rsity  of  Maryland ;  Member  of 
American  Medical  Association;  President  of  laltiiiiorti  Academy  of  Medicine. 


Kxiraet  from  Preface. 

"  Ilyj^ienc,  public  and  private,  lias  become,  of  late  yearp,  one  of  tlie 
most  importutit  elements  ol  modern  civilization.  It  is  a  subject  in  wliicli 
all  mankind  has  an  interest,  even  if  it  be,  as  it  too  ofltcu  is,  un  uiicuu- 
scioiis  interest. 

"  The  present  work  is  addressed  to  the  pcneral  reader,  no  matter 
what  his  pursuit,  and  the  lanjrua^e  is  such  as  any  physician  may  u.-e  in 
conversation  with  an  intellifrent  patient  ;  it  is  therefore  as  free  as  such  a 
work  can  be  made  from  seieiitilio  teehniealities. 

"  It  is  oflV-red  as  a  enntriliution  to  a  jrrcat  cause,  nnd  the  writer  trust.t 
that  it  will  have  some  iiiflueiuo  in  promntiri};  the  health,  happiness,  and 
welfare  of  all  who  may  honor  it  with  a  earelul  perusal.  The  priiu-iples 
advocated  have  bec-n,  to  a  f^reat  extent,  put  in  practice  in  the  personal 
experience  of  the  writer  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  and  under  numy 
vicisoitudes,  and  he  has  found  them  to  be  not  vague  tbeories,  but  prac- 
tical truths  of  the  greatest  imjiortaiue." 


COIsTXEig-TS. 
PART  I.-ISmonVCTUIiY  li'K.UAnh's: 
Uy;rJcne  i!ie  n<'ltcr  Part  of  Medicine.— The  Four  Dlvidionn  of  Himinii  I  ife:  Tim 
KirHi  (Quarter,  or  tlio  Klrnt  Score  of  Yonri».     Tlu-  Ykmiil'  Man  ;    llic  Youn^ 
Wuiuau.    Tbu  .Man  ;  tbu  Wuniau.     The  Declinlii;;  or  Old  Man. 

PAnr  n.-iiYfiiEsicH  av  some  detail. 

Itoce,  TempemmetitH,  nnd  Idio^ynrmpicH.  — Inherilnnre.— IlnliU.— ConFtftullon. 
— Tlie  Air  we  Hrenihi'.— SewiTH  nnd  (VH(<tiooln.—0/nne,— Malaria.— Animal 
Kinnnatitnift.  —  Duvltnli/eil  Iloiifo-.Mr.  —  NVator.  —  Clotlilui;.  -  -  I'.xerriMe  or 
\Vi>rl<.— Influericr;  of  Drnipntion  nnnn  Loiit'cvlty. — Limit  to  I.nhor.- Tlie 
Food  of  .Mnii.-ArrcHHory  Fo<m1.-  Mnnner  of  l-jitlni.'.- Tea  and  Coflee.— Al- 
cohol.-I'm- nnd  AhiiHe  -.\rdent  Spirlln.  WliieH-  Mall  I.loitorH.- Toharco. 
— Chewini;  and  .'^inuklnt;  ithuulU  bu  forbidden  In  School,  lieport  uf  >tn\ul 
Kur;;conii. 


One  volume,  12nno.    Cloth.    Price,  $1.20. 


1).  APrLKTON  k  CO.,  PinLtsnEnH,  C49  k  5.')]  Broadwat,  N.  Y 


HEALTH    PRIMl'RS. 

EDITED   bV 

J.  LANGDON  DOWN,  M.  D..  F.  R.  C  P. 
HKNRV   rOWER,  M.  B.,  F.  R.  C.  S. 
J.   MORTIMKK-CRANVII.I.K,  M.  D. 
lOHN   TWLEDY,  K.  R.  C.  S. 

TIIOU(iII   it  is  of  the  greatest  importance   iJmt  »>ooV«  upon  hctlih 
hIiouKI  be  in  the  highest  dr^rec  trustworthy,  it  i  th»t  ^n»^l 

of  the  cheap  and  jwpiilar  kioii  are  mere  crude  C'  "f  ineoni- 

peleiit  persons,  and  are  often  misleading  ami   iiijn -       iu^iTes^"-*!  I>.v 

these'eonsidenitions,  several  eminent  na-diiMl  ami  sririiiifie  nun  of  Lun- 
don  have  eoniliiiied  to  prepare  a  series  of  l!KAt.Tn  ruiMKHS  of  a  eliarai-ter 
that  sliall  be  entiileil  to  the  fuIK-al  confidence.  They  «re  to  Jk?  brief, 
sin.pie,  and  elementary  in  statement,  filled  with  tiubstantial  and  useful 
information  suitable  for  the  guidance  of  grown-up  people.  Knch  prireer 
will  be  written  by  a  pentleinan  specially  eompetrnt  to  tnat  hii*  cubjcci, 
While  the  eritical  supeivi.-ion  of  the  books  ii  iu  the  hands  of  a  coiumittev 
who  will  act  as  editors. 

A.s  these  little  books  are  pro<liieed  by  English  authors,  they  arc 
naturally  based  very  much  upon  Knglish  experienee,  •)ul  it  ntatlcnt  little 
whence  illustrations  up»>n  such  subjects  are  drawn,  because  the  esi^ntial 
conditions  of  avoiding  disease  an  1  preserving  health  are  to  a  great  degree 
everywhere  the  same. 

VOLUMES  OF  THE  SERIES. 

Exercise  and  Traininfir.    villus-  The  Heart  and  Ita  Funotlona. 

trated.)  The  Head. 

Alcohol:  Its  Use  and  Abuaa.  Clothing  and  Drcas. 

The  House  and   its   Surround-  ]   Wat«r. 

^"•f"*  j  The  Skin  and  iU  Troubles. 

Premature   Death:   Its  Promo-  ,  p.^^,  ^^  p^i„. 

tlon  or  Prevention.  ^ 

Personal   Appearances  In  I  Th.  Ear  and  Hcarln.. 

Health  and   Dl^ieasj.    iIUus-  j  ThB  Eye  and  Vision. 

trated.)  Temperature     in     Health    aad 

Baths  and  Bathinir.  Diseas?. 

In  stpian-  lomo  vumi.ii*,  rmtli,  price,  4u  «.-  i- 


Fitr  m!t  h>i  <>'  <.     vlwy  roiime  mailfti,  pott j^tiJ,  to  uny  «4- 

ire*itintlu  I'ni'    •  recripl  of  pricr. 

D.  .\PrLETON  &  CO.,  PfWJSMK**. 


WORKS 

OF 

THOMAS  H.  HFXLEY,  LL.D.,  F,R.S. 


I. 
MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATUKE.    1  vol.,  l2ino.    Cloth,  $1.25. 

II. 
ON  THE  OUl(;iN  OF  SPECIES.     1  vol.,  12mo.     Cloil.,  $1.00. 

III. 
.MOKE    (HITK  IS.MS    ON     OARWIN,    AND    ADMINISTKA- 
TIVE  .MIIILIS.^I.     1  vol.,  I'Jmo.     Limp  clotli,  50  ccnls. 

IV. 

A  .MAM  AL  01    THE  ANATOMY  OF  VEUTEHHATEl)  ANI- 
MALS.    Ilhi.stratcd.     1  vol.,  llimo.     Cloth,  e'-i-^JO. 

V. 
A  MANIAL  OF  THE  ANATOMY  OF  INVFKTEUUATED 
ANIMALS.  *i.oO. 

VI. 

LAY    SERMONS,    ADDRESSES,    AND    HFVIEWS.      1    vol., 
I'Jmo.     Cloth,  *1.7.">. 

VII. 
CRITKjrES  .\ND  ADDHESSF.S.     12;i.o.     Cloth.  *l.fiO. 

VIII. 

AMI;KI(  \N    ADDRESSES;    with    a    I.tdiiic   <  ii    the   Slinly 
of  Hioioi,'*.     Umn.     Clotli,  ftl.'jr.. 

IX. 

PIIYSKMJRAI'IIY:  An  Inlrodiirllon  Iodic  SI  inly  of  Nnt  lire. 

U.tl,   I1Im-I..,i;..;,.  nil  I  ('..I'il'.l   ri.ilrM.       I'Jmo.       Clolll,  ^2..V>. 

\ 
EFKMFNTS    OF    IMIYSIOI.OiiY    AND    IIYIilENE.     Hy  T.   II. 

Ill  xi.KY  ami  W.  .1.  VoLM.\s.><.      1  vol.,  rjriio.      >]..',•». 


I)    .M'I'l.r.TON  k  fo.,  PfiiLiHiiEin,  M'.»  i  r<r.l  MinAi.wAY,  N  Y. 


INTERNATIONAL   SCIENTIFIC  SERIES. 


AOH'  RE  A  DV.    In\  imo  and  tuyund  in  cU-tk. 

I.  FOUMS  OF  WATKH.  In  Qouds  Kaln,  KItcw,  Ico,  and  GUcUr*.     I«r  lYot 
.loii.N  Tymdaix.     ♦I.'iII. 
II.  rUVSlCS  AND  ri>LlTIC9:  or.  TboiiehUi  on  the  Applloallon  oftbc  PrinH. 
iili-»  of  "  Natuml  Scli-<-tlon  "  niid  -  InliiTlUnco*'  Xu  VuUUral  J>ock-t>.     Ujr 
\Vai.tek  ll.MiriiiiT.    %\.'M. 

III.  Fl)t>l>.-».     Itv  Kdwaiu.  M4ITII.  M.  1).,  I.I,,  n  .  K.  R  ».    fl.T.V 

IV.  .MI.M)   ANM  IJtiDY.     Ilv  Ai  KX JkM.iM  IUin.  LL.  H.     |UV». 

V.  TIIK  M'l'DY  (IK  SO(  |ol.O(iV.     liv  lli:KiitkT  Si-rx<  ck.    |I  M. 
VI.  TIIK  NKW  ClIKMIsTUY.     By   I'rOt  .Iwjaii  1'.  Cwk«,  Jr^  of  Ilarrmni 
^nlv.•r^lt>•.     I.M"!. 
A'll.  TIIK   IDXVKKVATION'    of    LNKKGV.     By  Prof.  Baitv-b  STKWArr. 

M..  I).  KUS.    $1  .VI. 
VIII.  ANIMAL  L<>0)MurioN;  or.  Walklne.  Pwlinmlnir.  »nd  n.vlnp.  with  •  I»U- 
wrtallon  on  .X.'-ronaiitio.*.     Ily  .1.  H.  I'ltiTii.iivw,  M.  I».     lllu»:nt<<d.    |I^.V 
IX.  ia>n»N:>IBlLlTY    IN    MENTAL    DIStAM:.     By  II.  Maimuct,  M.  D. 

♦  !..>». 

X.  TIIK  S(MEN'('K  OF  LAW.     Bv  Prof  Siiri.iH^x  Ano«.     |1.T.V 
XI.  ANIM.VI.    .MK<  IIANI-M       A    'inaK-.    ..n   T.  m  •trl*l  and  ACriil  I  o«o«no- 

ti..n.     Itv  K.  .1.  Makkv.     117  lllii.tr..il..iiv     *1  ::.. 
XII.  TIIK    lIlAlouv   OK    TIIK    (oNKLIil     HKIWKKN    KKI.KilUN   AM> 
sriKNCK.     Bv.J.iiiN  WiiiuM  I>ttAii«,  M.  I>..  LL  l>.    fl.oV 

XIII.  Tin;  Dot  riMN'K  ok  DKMKNr.  AND   DAU^VINI^'M.     By  IVot  Ok-ak 

.•<<iiMi>»T.  of  .>;tr.i.«liun:  rrilvcr!>ltv.      *l..'^t. 

XIV.  TIIK  CIIKMI.^TKV  OK  LHillTAND  PHOTOGRAPHY:  In  lu  ApH'«* 

tlon  to  .Vrt,  S.lcncis  and  la.luslrj-.     By  Ur.  II.  Vo»iH_    IWJ  IUu»u»ii.'i>«. 

♦  2.<H). 

XV.  FrN<iI;  Ih.lr  \a*   -      '  'I.D.    lil- 

lt.-<l  bv  U.v.  M   .1 
XVI.  TIIK   LIKK  AND  I  D.  Wiirr 

M  V.  i.r  Vii!.-  <•.'■.■...    ♦!..■«'. 
XVII.  MoNKV  AND    llli:    MKCIIWISM    OF   KXCIIAXGE.    By  W.  .'^T*»utT 

.li:\..N-    M     \      II:   -.     ?l  7  ., 

XVIII.  Tin:  \  »jOf,«k». 

XIX.  A  if^ 

XX.  .■■■  ^  ■■*' 

XXL  TIi'k   1  lOJi.  O.O.I- 

tie  I 

XXII.  Tin:  iiii.u;V  OK  .-"tM>  iv  n~  i:i  i  \i  1"N  to  Mt'.«*n-    n.i-".' 

I*irri!i  Iti  \<«eKNA,  uf  tbo  Royal  t'nUcr»lly  uf  Rmuo.     NumrrwoA  »»■) 
nil*.     • :  ■■ '-  .  . 

XXIIL  STI  Dl  TKl'M  ANALY.HIS.     By  J.  Nobmas  !»•  BTtJL     laoa- 

tmi; 

XXIV.  A  111-  inr  nf;<<v,-Tii  or  rnr  «ttmm  rvofxK     bt 

X\V.  I 
vvvi    \  \-t  aM    livlnMrr.      Bjr 

l:,u.:r. !,■■:.•«. 

I).  Arri.KTOS  *  CO..  Pul.  mi  Droa4w*ti,  Kt*  Vrrk. 


A  thou^ht/iil  and  valuable  contribution  to  the  best  religious  literature 
oj  the  day. 


RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE. 


\  Series  of  Sunday  Lectures  on  the  Relation  of  Natural  and  Revealed 
Rclij^ion,  or  tiic  Truths  revealed  in  Nature  and  Scrii)ture. 

By   JOSEPH     LE    CONTE, 
PB0PK3!iOE  or  cr.ou>t;v  and  .natlbal  uistoky  in  the  univeiwitv  or  califobma. 

l2nto,  cloth.      Priu-,  $1  50. 

OViyiOJiS    OF    THE   I'liESS. 

•'  This  work  is  chiefly  remarkahlc  as  a  conscientious  enbrt  to  reconcile 
the  revelations  of  Science  with  those  of  Scripture,  and  will  be  very  use- 
ful to  teachers  of  the  different  Sunday-schools." — Detroit  Union. 

"It  will  be  seen,  by  this  resuiuJ  of  the  topics,  that  Prof.  I.e  Conte 
jjrapples  with  some  of  the  gravest  questions  wliich  a};ilatc  the  thinking 
world.  He  treats  of  tlicni  all  with  iligniiy  and  fairness,  and  in  a  man- 
ner so  clear,  persuasive,  and  eloquent,  as  to  engage  the  uiuiividtd  at- 
tention of  the  reader.  We  commend  the  book  cordially  to  the  regard 
of  all  who  are  interested  in  whatever  pertains  to  the  discussion  of  these 
grave  questions,  and  especially  to  those  who  desire  to  examine  closely 
the  strong  foundations  on  which  the  Christian  faith  is  reared." — Boston 
"Journal. 

"A  reverent  student  of  Nature  and  religion  is  llie  bcst-nualificd  mnn 
to  instruct  others  in  their  harmony.  The  author  at  first  intended  his 
work  for  a  lJi!)le-class,  but,  as  it  grew  under  his  liaiuls,  it  seemed  well  to 
give  it  form  in  a  neat  volume.  'J'he  lectures  .nre  fiom  a  decidedly  re- 
ligious stand  point,  and  as  such  present  a  new  n.etlicd  of  treatment." 
—r/iiladelphia  A,i^'e. 

"This  volume  is  made  up  of  Uclures  delivered  to  his  pupils,  nnd  is 
written  with  much  clearness  <jf  thought  and  unusual  titaintss  of  ex- 
pression, although  the  author's  I!nglish  is  not  always  above  reproach. 
It  is  partly  a  treatise  on  natural  theology  nnd  partly  a  defense  of  the 
Mible  against  the  assaults  of  modern  science.  In  the  hitler  aspect  the 
author's  method  is  an  eminently  wise  one.  He  accepts  whatever  sti- 
cncc  has  proved,  and  he  also  accepts  the  <livine  origin  of  the  I'.ible. 
Where  the  two  seem  to  conflict  he  prefers  to  await  the  recontiliatii  n, 
which  is  inevitable  if  both  are  true,  rather  than  to  waste  lime  nnd  words 
in  inventing  ingenious  an<l  doubtful  theories  to  force  them  into  seeming 
accord.  Both  a*  a  theologian  and  a  man  of  sci«"nce,  I'rof.  I.e  Contc's 
opinions  nrc  entitled  to  resj»ectful  attention,  and  lln-re  are  few  who  will 
not  recogni/.c  his  l>ook  as  a  thoughtful  and  valuable  contribution  to  the 
best  religious  literature  of  the  day." — A'ew  )'or/:  World. 

D.  ArPLKTON  &  CO.,  Publishers,  549  &  551  Broadway,  N.  Y. 


New  Volume  of  "The  International  Scientific  Series." 


EDUCATION  AS  A  SClIi.XCI-, 


ALEXANDER  BAIN,   LL.  D.. 
rRorE!<.Moii   OP   LDoic    I.N    TUJS    iMVEimiTr    nr    AUcnDCCX. 

1  vol.,  llmo.     CVo/A,  pnVf,  tl.T.'i. 


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possUile,  from  a  scientific  point  of  view ;  which  mean^,  among  other 
thinp<,  thut  the  maxims  of  ordinary  experience  arc  toited  and  amended 
hy  bringing  them  under  the  best  ascertained  laws  of  the  mind." — From 
JW/acc. 

"  Dr.  Huin's  rniovalttl  enrricnlum  i.>;  certainly  extenf-ive  enough,  crfn 
if  it  omits  Grecic  and  Latin.  According  to  thin,  higher  e<lucation  should 
embrace — first,  eciencc ;  second,  t!ie  humanities,  includin);  himory  and 
the  social  science,  and  some  portions  of  the  unireri'al  literature  ;  and, 
third,  English  composition  and  literature." — Stie  York  Ertninif  £r/'rtu. 

"  The  work  should  l)ecome  a  texl-lH>ok  for  teachers  not  to  bo  fo|. 
lowed  servilely  or  thouu'htle.syly,  but  used  for  it-t  sup^eiiti\  cuetw." — Hotltm 
(Jtuetic. 

"Professor  IJain  i-  not  a  mnue  m  un-  iirm.  inn  •■pfk  U  admirable 
in  many  respects  for  teacher,  |>arcnl,  and  pupil." — rKHad<ffJiia  y»rlk 
American. 

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phy  of  teaching,  and  manfully  handling  facts." — Philadr'j-^-  ■■  "-  ■• 


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SCiiZNTiPic  Series 


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•"'•'• —ryiC*-"  tt\f  —  '■'rm^iL^owwMBf'i 


